Topic 2 - Cells Flashcards
1
Q
Eukaryotic cells
A
Cells with membrane-bound organelles, including plants and animals.
2
Q
Plasma membrane
A
Partially permeable barrier regulating molecule passage.
3
Q
Nucleus
A
Contains DNA organized into chromosomes.
4
Q
Nucleolus
A
Synthesizes ribosomal RNA and assembles ribosomes.
5
Q
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
A
Site of protein synthesis, studded with ribosomes.
6
Q
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
A
Synthesizes and transports lipids and carbohydrates.
7
Q
Mitochondria
A
Produces ATP through aerobic respiration.
8
Q
Golgi apparatus
A
Modifies and packages proteins for transport.
9
Q
Lysosomes
A
Digest worn-out organelles using hydrolytic enzymes.
10
Q
Chloroplasts
A
Site of photosynthesis in plants and algae.
11
Q
Cell wall
A
Rigid structure preventing cell bursting from osmosis.
12
Q
Vacuole
A
Fluid-filled sac providing turgor pressure in plants.
13
Q
Cell specialization
A
Eukaryotic cells adapt for specific functions.
14
Q
Tissue
A
Group of identical cells performing a function.
15
Q
Organ
A
Group of different tissues working together.
16
Q
System
A
Collection of organs functioning together.
17
Q
Prokaryotic cells
A
Cells without membrane-bound organelles, like bacteria.
18
Q
70S ribosomes
A
Smaller ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells.
19
Q
Circular genetic material
A
DNA structure in prokaryotes, free in cytoplasm.
20
Q
Cell wall (prokaryotes)
A
Contains murein, preventing cell bursting.
21
Q
Flagellum
A
Structure enabling movement in prokaryotic cells.
22
Q
Plasmid
A
Small DNA circle carrying extra genes.
23
Q
Capsule
A
Protective layer against antibiotics in bacteria.
24
Q
Viruses
A
Non-living entities with genetic material and proteins.
25
Cell fractionation
Technique to isolate organelles by density.
26
Homogenization
Breaking cells open to release organelles.
27
Isotonic solution
Prevents osmotic damage to organelles.
28
Ice cold solution
Inactivates enzymes to protect organelles.
29
pH buffer
Maintains optimal pH for enzymatic activity.
30
Centrifugation
Separates organelles by density using centrifugal force.
31
Supernatant
Liquid above sediment after centrifugation process.
32
Optical Microscopy
Uses light to view thin specimens, limited resolution.
33
Eyepiece Graticule
Measuring tool calibrated with a stage micrometer.
34
Electron Microscopy
Uses electrons for high-resolution imaging of organelles.
35
Transmission Electron Microscope
Electrons pass through specimen, revealing internal structures.
36
Scanning Electron Microscope
Scans surface to create 3D images of specimens.
37
Resolution
Ability to distinguish two close objects clearly.
38
Magnification
Enlargement of an image, can cause blurriness.
39
Artefacts
False structures resulting from specimen preparation.
40
Interphase
Stage where DNA is unraveled for protein synthesis.
41
G1 Phase
Cell growth and function before DNA replication.
42
S Phase
DNA replication occurs, forming sister chromatids.
43
G2 Phase
Organelles replicate and ATP is generated for energy.
44
Mitosis
Cell division producing two genetically identical daughter cells.
45
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and become visible; spindle fibers form.
46
Metaphase
Chromosomes align at cell equator, spindle fibers attach.
47
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
48
Telophase
Chromatids unravel, new nuclear membrane forms.
49
Cell Cycle
Sequence of stages a cell undergoes during division.
50
Actual Size Calculation
Actual size = image size / magnification.
51
Magnification Calculation
Magnification = image size / actual size.
52
Chromatin
Unraveled DNA during interphase, not visible as chromosomes.
53
Centromere
Region where sister chromatids are joined together.
54
Spindle Fibres
Protein fibers that facilitate chromosome movement during mitosis.
55
3D Imaging
Created by scanning electron microscopy of surfaces.
56
Living Tissue Observation
Not possible with electron microscopy due to vacuum requirement.
57
Nuclear Membrane
Membrane that surrounds the nucleus, breaks down in mitosis.
58
Cell Growth
Increase in cell size and function during G1 phase.
59
Cytokinesis
Division of cytoplasm producing two daughter cells.
60
Mitotic Index
Ratio of cells in mitosis to total cells.
61
Cell Cycle Length
Duration varies with cell division rate.
62
Interphase
Phase where rapidly dividing cells spend less time.
63
Cancer
Uncontrolled cell division due to gene damage.
64
Tumor
Mass formed by uncontrolled cell division.
65
Cancer Treatment
Involves blocking parts of the cell cycle.
66
DNA Replication Prevention
Stops cancer cells from duplicating DNA.
67
Spindle Formation Prevention
Inhibits chromosome separation during mitosis.
68
Binary Fission
Prokaryotic cell division method.
69
Circular DNA
Single DNA molecule in prokaryotes.
70
Plasmids
Small DNA molecules in prokaryotes.
71
Viruses
Non-living entities that infect host cells.
72
Virus Replication
Uses host cell machinery for reproduction.
73
Surface Antigens
Viral markers left on host cell membrane.
74
Phospholipid
Molecule with glycerol, fatty acids, and phosphate.
75
Hydrophobic
Water-repelling property of fatty acid tails.
76
Hydrophilic
Water-attracting property of phosphate heads.
77
Phospholipid Bilayer
Two layers of phospholipids in cell membranes.
78
Fluid Mosaic Model
Describes membrane structure with embedded proteins.
79
Cholesterol in Membranes
Regulates fluidity of the phospholipid bilayer.
80
Intrinsic Proteins
Proteins that span both membrane layers.
81
Extrinsic Proteins
Proteins located on one membrane layer.
82
Glycoproteins
Proteins associated with carbohydrates on membranes.
83
Membrane Function
Prevents water-soluble molecules from diffusing out.
84
Diffusion
Movement from high to low concentration.
85
Concentration Gradient
Difference in concentration across a membrane.
86
Factors Affecting Diffusion
Temperature, surface area, distance, and gradient.
87
Oxygen Diffusion
Small molecules pass through membranes easily.
88
Facilitated Diffusion
Movement of molecules via specific channel proteins.
89
Channel Protein
Intrinsic protein allowing water-soluble molecule passage.
90
Carrier Protein
Protein that transports molecules across membranes.
91
Saturation
Maximum rate of transport when proteins are full.
92
Active Transport
Movement of molecules against concentration gradient using ATP.
93
ATP
Energy molecule used in active transport processes.
94
Shape Change
Alteration of protein structure to transport molecules.
95
Co-transport
Simultaneous transport of two substances across a membrane.
96
Sodium Ions
Charged particles actively transported into blood from cells.
97
Lumen
Interior space of a tubular structure, like intestines.
98
Osmosis
Water movement from high to low water potential.
99
Water Potential
Pressure potential of a solution, measured in kPa.
100
Isotonic Solution
Solution with equal water potential to another solution.
101
Turgor Pressure
Pressure from water inside plant cells against cell wall.
102
Plasmolysis
Loss of turgor pressure causing plant cell wilting.
103
Phagocytosis
Process of engulfing bacteria by phagocytes.
104
Phagocyte
Cell that engulfs and digests pathogens.
105
Phagosome
Vesicle formed around engulfed bacteria in phagocytes.
106
Lysozyme
Enzyme that digests bacteria within phagosomes.
107
Antigen
Foreign substance triggering immune response.
108
T Lymphocytes
White blood cells involved in cell-mediated immunity.
109
Stem Cells
Undifferentiated cells that produce T lymphocytes.
110
Thymus Gland
Organ where T lymphocytes mature and activate.
111
Non-self Antigens
Antigens from outside the body recognized by T cells.
112
Specific Immune Response
Targeted immune response to specific pathogens.
113
Microbe
Microorganism that can trigger an immune response.
114
Antigenic Variation
Different shapes of antigens on various microbes.
115
Antigen Presenting Cells
Cells that display antigens for T cell recognition.
116
Phagocytes
Engulf pathogens and present their antigens.
117
Helper T Lymphocyte
Activates immune cells upon binding specific antigens.
118
Clonal Selection
B cell division triggered by T helper cell binding.
119
Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes
Destroy virus-infected host cells using cytotoxins.
120
Memory Cells
Long-lived cells that remember past infections.
121
Humoral Immunity
B cell-mediated immune response involving antibodies.
122
B Lymphocyte Activation
Triggered by antigen binding to membrane antibodies.
123
Plasma Cells
B cell clones that produce specific antibodies.
124
Monoclonal Antibodies
Antibodies produced by identical B cell clones.
125
Antibody Structure
Proteins with specific shapes binding to antigens.
126
Antibody-Antigen Complex
Lattice structure formed by multiple antibody bindings.
127
Agglutination
Binding of antibodies causing clumping of pathogens.
128
Toxin Precipitation
Antibodies neutralize soluble toxins, rendering them harmless.
129
Pathogen Binding Prevention
Antibodies block pathogens from entering host cells.
130
Phagocyte Activation
Antibodies stimulate phagocytes to engulf complexes.
131
Primary Immune Response
Initial response to first pathogen exposure.
132
Latent Period
Time before antibodies are produced after infection.
133
Antibody Concentration Rise
Increase in antibodies after primary infection.
134
Secondary Immune Response
Faster and stronger response to re-infection.
135
Natural Active Immunity
Immunity from natural pathogen exposure.
136
Antigenic Variability
Pathogen mutations leading to different antigen forms.
137
Vaccine
Contains antigens to provoke immune response without disease.
138
Memory Cell Production
Generated after vaccination for future pathogen defense.
139
Immune System Activation
Triggered by pathogen detection and antigen presentation.
140
Cytotoxin Release
Mechanism used by cytotoxic T cells to kill infected cells.
141
Antibody Release
Plasma cells secrete antibodies into the bloodstream.
142
Infection Symptoms
Caused by pathogen reproduction during immune response.
143
Rapid Antibody Production
Occurs during secondary response for quick pathogen elimination.
144
Artificial Active Immunity
Immunity developed through vaccination.
145
Herd Immunity
Population immunity preventing disease spread.
146
Passive Immunity
Immunity from externally administered antibodies.
147
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
Virus causing Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
148
RNA Nucleic Acid
Genetic material in HIV, consists of two copies.
149
Reverse Transcriptase Enzyme
Enzyme converting viral RNA into DNA.
150
Protein Coat (Capsid)
Protective layer surrounding viral genetic material.
151
Lipid Envelope
Membrane surrounding HIV, contains glycoprotein spikes.
152
CD4 Protein
Receptor HIV attaches to on T lymphocytes.
153
HIV Positive
State indicating antibodies against HIV are present.
154
Opportunistic Diseases
Infections arising from weakened immune system.
155
AZT
Antiviral drug inhibiting HIV replication.
156
Monoclonal Antibodies
Identical antibodies from a single B lymphocyte clone.
157
ELISA Test
Test detecting proteins like anti-HIV antibodies.
158
Cytotoxic Drug
Drug targeting and killing cancer cells.
159
Antibiotics
Chemicals that kill bacteria without harming human cells.
160
Bacterial Cell Targeting
Antibiotics disrupt bacterial structures, causing cell death.
161
Viral Resistance to Antibiotics
Viruses lack structures targeted by antibiotics.
162
Animal Experimentation
Ethical concern in vaccine production.
163
MMR Vaccine
Vaccine linked to controversial autism claims.
164
Scientific Scrutiny
Process ensuring scientific theories are validated.
165
Sample Size Flaw
Small sample undermines reliability of study results.
166
Vested Interest
Personal gain influencing scientific research outcomes.
167
Long-term Side Effects
Potential risks from vaccine testing on volunteers.
168
Compulsory Vaccination Debate
Discussion on mandatory vaccination for public health.
169
Measles Resurgence
Increase in measles cases due to vaccination decline.
170
Tiredness
Common symptom of HIV infection.
171
Fever
Another symptom associated with HIV infection.
172
Weight Loss
Sign of advanced HIV infection.
173
Diarrhoea
Gastrointestinal symptom linked to HIV/AIDS.
