Topic 2: Developmental Factors

Question 1

How does criminality change over time?

Answer 1

crime can be highly transient over the lifespan

such much so, that a subfield known as developmental criminology has emerged: seeks to identify mediators, developmental trajectories

which influences have most impact may depend on current developmental stage: e.g., low VIQ in childhood, negative peers in adolescence

this is of obvious interest for early detection and intervention: idea is to alter trajectory, easier at earlier (younger) stages

“experimenters” are the majority of youthful offenders but outgrow it by late adolescence

Question 2

What are the developmental risk factors that contribute to delinquency?

Answer 2

cognitive deficits (low intelligence)

scholastic factors: school refusal/withdrawal, failure

familial factors: low attachment, limited supervision, inappropriate disciplinary practices

low SES

antisocial peer affiliation

Question 3

What does cognitive development refer to?

Answer 3

attention

concentration

memory

higher executive functioning: planning, problem solving, thinking ahead to future consequences (anticipation)

Question 4

What are the relevant measures of cognitive development?

Answer 4

standardized IQ batteries: e.g., CAS, WISC-V/WAIS-V, predict academic success well (i.e., high correlation)

neuropsychological measures

individually administered

yield highly reliable estimates

tap a broad range of abilities

Question 5

What is social cognition?

Answer 5

should also be considered, through far less research has been done in this realm

ability to comprehend the behavior and motives of others

Question 6

What is moral reasoning?

Answer 6

not well correlated with offending behavior in some subgroups

lack of understanding vs. concern

Question 7

Are criminals “stupid”?

Answer 7

usually means MR, (IQ < 70)

this only describes a small percentage (i.e., about 2% to 9.5%)

these estimates come from prisons; don’t count custody diversion cases or parolees

differential apprehension effect/artifact?

Question 8

How strong of a predictor is IQ?

Answer 8

Hirschi & Hindelang (1977): stronger than social class: 0.16 to 0.31 vs. 0.09 to 0.18, in the same order as race (0.26 to 0.27)

Lynam, Moffitt & Stouthamer-Loeber (1993): delinquents score 10 to 11 points lower than non-delinquents in FSIQ, about 8 points lower on VIQ

Question 9

How does it being an apprehension artifact explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?

Answer 9

lower intellect –> less success concealing crime –> greater rate of arrest

Question 10

How does their IQs being lower because of their delinquent lifestyle explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?

Answer 10

drugs, HI, school dropout

problem: longitudinal studies have shown the lower IQ predicts subsequent criminality

Question 11

How does IQ effects being mediated by poor scholastic achievement and social adjustment explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?

Answer 11

Lynam et al. (1993) wrote that this is true of blacks, but not whites

explains why most people with lower IQ are not involved in crime

think of a dimmer switch: press = on/off (moderation), rotate = brightness (mediation)

Question 12

What is the mediator and moderator relationship between poor scholastic achievement and criminality in white populations versus black populations?

Answer 12

independent variable: intelligence

moderator: race (white or black)

mediator: scholastic achievement (only for minority)

dependent variable: criminality

Question 13

What are mediators?

Answer 13

attenuate relationship between IV and DV

Question 14

What are moderators?

Answer 14

enable or disable relationship between mediator and DV

Question 15

How does the fact that low IQ scores are merely correlates of deeper, more pervasive deficits explain the correlation between lower IQ and criminality?

Answer 15

suggests IQ differences underestimate the true magnitude of more relevant deficits

school failure is a correlate, not a result or cause, of the same deficit(s)

Question 16

What is the Porporino & Robinson (1992) study on targeting educational deficits?

Answer 16

n = 1736 Canadian adult inmates; average academic level ~ grad 6

goal: raise achievement by two grade levels in reading and math

three groups at one-year follow-up

completers: 30% re-incarceration rate

discharges: 36% re-incarceration rate

withdrawals: 42% re-incarceration rate

when education increased, re-incarceration decreased

the researchers controlled for risk level: selection bias may have been a factor

Question 17

What was the Perry Preschool Project?

Answer 17

hybrid design: new cohort added yearly

low SES kids (IQ 60-88)

experimental group: 1 to 2 years preschool + weekly home visits by teacher
control group: no preschool + weekly home visits by teacher

Question 18

What were the results of the Perry Preschool Project?

Answer 18

experimental group subjects, at age 19, had significantly fewer arrests and were more likely to be employed

caution: neither group membership (when correlated for education) nor IQ predicted delinquency; education attainment did (r = 0.36)

at age 27, 71% of experimental subjects had HS diploma vs. 54% of controls

Question 19

Why have more recent studies in targeting education deficits reported more equivocal results?

Answer 19

adult vs. child samples

failing to target specific deficits (e.g., LDs)

Question 20

How are parochial schools related to criminality?

Answer 20

parochial schools produce fewer delinquents

parents who care about education monitor their child’s actions more

reflects the preferences of the parents, produce fewer delinquents

Question 21

How are school atmospheres related to criminality?

Answer 21

school atmospheres that are “warm but restrictive” likewise produce fewer delinquents

have control, but the children don’t feel alienated

chill, but maintain control of the classroom

Question 22

What is normal brain development?

Answer 22

by age 6, a child’s brain has reached about 90% of its adult size

girls brains are at full size by about 11-12 years old

boys by about 13

yet the brain isn’t fully developed until about 25

analogy: moving to another house is like moving from childhood to adulthood; the boxes (CNS mass) are there but it takes time to unpack and organize

there is a premium on ability to learn rapidly, yet the brain can’t be so unstable (changeable) that learned information and skills are lost

Question 23

What is proliferation?

Answer 23

the formation of new synaptic connections through learning

adolescence is a period of neural exuberance where new connections are rapidly formed in response to environmental stimuli

Question 24

What is pruning?

Answer 24

a critical part of brain maturation involving the loss of unnecessary synaptic connections

takes place largely through myelination (growth of white matter that “insulates” neurons and makes brain more efficient)

Question 25

What brain structures are involved in antisocial behavior?

Answer 25

mainly the mesolimbic system; can be though of as a reward center ventral tegmental area releases dopamine into nucleus accumbens; affects motivation to pursue reward stimuli this is highly implicated in addictions of virtually every kind going from adolescence to adulthood, about 50% of the neurons in this area are pruned hence, (apparently) greater capacity to defer gratification combined with lowered approach tendencies

Question 26

What is the prefrontal cortex?

Answer 26

the prefrontal cortex is that part of the brain most responsible for higher executive functioning planning, decision making, suppressing urges, social decision making, representing info not currently in environment "mental sketch pad", dynamic filtering: brain deciding what to pay attention to and what not to do owing to its added complexity, the PFC matures later than deeper brain structures it has the ability to inhibit behaviors: while the PFC is still in development, the tendency for risk taking. short term goal directed behavior is inordinately strong as the PFC matures and neurons in the mesolimbic pathway prune, we gain control and reduce risk taking this is not about risk tolerance or inability to accurately calculate risk; those are "intact" well before the end of adolescence

Question 27

How is moderate corporal punishment (CP) is associated with increased child aggressiveness?

Answer 27

positive association overall between CP and aggression greatest damage between never using CP and using CP in the past 6 months

Question 28

Why is corporal punishment associated with increased child aggressiveness?

Answer 28

when done impulsively, the punishment contingency may be improperly structured done in anger, the child may perceive CP as function of parental instability: resentment, anger "Wait until your father gets home": associates good behavior with and CP modeling effects: shows violence is okay disrupts parent-child bonding lowered self-esteem: eating disorders, rebellion, MDD, anxiety CP is also associated with increased risk for mental health problems and diminished empathy later in the child's life it has been suggested that "responsible" vs. impulsive CP results in fewer negative effects

Question 29

What are family factors associated with antisocial factors?

Answer 29

several studies have pointed out that a disproportionately high number of criminals come from broken homes: highly confounded with other factors however, such as SES, level of supervision, etc. Gove & Crutchfield (1982) pointed out that children from intact, but conflicted homes may be worse off: children raised by a single parent, but in non-conflicted homes are less likely to become delinquents

Question 30

How does dad's discipline contribute to antisocial behavior?

Answer 30

low risk: firm but kind high risk: lax, erratic, or excessive

Question 31

How does mom's supervision contribute to antisocial behavior?

Answer 31

low risk: attentive, suitable high risk: distant, detached

Question 32

How does parent's affection contribute to antisocial behavior?

Answer 32

low risk: warm high risk: hostile

Question 33

How does family cohesiveness contribute to antisocial behavior?

Answer 33

low risk: close but differentiated high risk: unintegrated or enmeshed

Question 34

What is the Butterfly Effect?

Answer 34

a metaphor in Chaos theory even in cases of apparent randomness (non-predictability), there are underlying pattens and causal forces at play "sensitive dependence on initial conditions": small differences at one point can cause massive differences elsewhere (or later in time)

Question 35

What is Terrie Moffit's (1993) model of developmental, learning, and biological factors interacting to produce criminal behaviors?

Answer 35

Moffit's model was inspired by the observation that crime committed by youths increases sharply between puberty and roughly age 18 after that, most youths return to relatively crime-free lives (adolescent limited) about 5-6% go on to become "career criminals" well into adulthood (life course persistent)

Question 36

What risk factors for life course persistent criminals?

Answer 36

LCP children present with a higher incidence of ADHD, and are more likely to come from homes that expose them to other risk factors lower school performance: teachers get frustrated problems in socializing: few prosocial friends parent-child interactions are more likely to be strained: this may lead to further abuse (i.e., harsh and inconsistent discipline), in extreme cases possibly brain damage, difficult kids are more likely to come from homes with limited money and low access to professional resources as they develop, there is higher incidence of: substance abuse, trouble accepting restrictions and limits, unplanned pregnancies, substandard educational attainment, lack of legal coping strategies, criminal records that limit future employment

Question 37

What is the self-perpetuating cycle of life course persistent children?

Answer 37

LPC children dig themselves further and further into problems recovering to a non-criminal lifestyle becomes very difficult the early age of onset is the key

Question 38

What are the characteristics of adolescent limited children?

Answer 38

by the time they get into trouble (after puberty), the core set of social and academic skills is in place: they usually smarten up question: so why do they get into crime in the first place? answer: we bear some of the blame for that!

Question 39

What is the maturational gap and it's impact on adolescent limited children?

Answer 39

traditionally, most societies have had rites of passage today, these are largely absent in western society reaching adulthood gets "delayed": biologically, we mature as fast, or faster than ever adolescent limited kids try to close the gap through illegal means: sex, alcohol, money, peer status, etc. as the maturational gap closes naturally, the motivation to commit crime no longer exists: most antisocial behavior by teens drops after age 17 or 18