Training (basics) Flashcards
(26 cards)
Zaccaro & Banks (2004)
Stamping in and stretching out
Stamping in assignments = managers receive assignments that are tailered to allow them to PRACTICE NEWLY ACQUIRED skills and knowledge
stretch assignments = managers receive assignments that CHALLENGE THE LIMITS of their skill repertoire and motivate them to expand their skillsets
Adaptive (versus routine) expertise
Kozlowski (1998)
Routine expertise = highly proceduralized and routine skills, high performance in familiar situations, hinders performance in ambiguous or novel situations, and instructions are not clear
Adaptive expertise = deeper and more flexible knowledge representations / understanding of the performance domain; knowing what procedures/strategies are appropriate based on the situation
adaptability training requires a focus on developing adaptive expertise, focus on frame changing skills, being able to change frame of reference to be effective in a non-routine situation, use experiential variety (formal training, developmental experience, self development)
Cerasoli et al. (2016)
General point - organizations can teach employees to recognize ‘triggers’ for informal learning opportunities.
Wolfson et al. (2019)
Informal field-based learning and work design
IFBL = engaging in intientional self-directed behaviors aimed at learning new, work-oreitned and organizationally valued content OUTSIDE of a formal training program
- experimentation
- feedback and reflection
- vicarious learning behaviors
promotion-focused individuals do better with IFBL (and do even better when there is time pressure involved)
beneficial in jobs that require more updating of information, and in lower levels of decision-making and problem solving
IFBL may not always be advantageous
DeRue & Wellman (2009)
Developing leaders via experience: the role of developmental challenge, learning orientation, and feedback availability
characteristics of developmental challenge = unfamiliar responsibilities, creating change, high levels of responsibility, working across boundaries, managing diversity
As developmental challenge increases, leadership skill development increases up to a point, and when the challenge is too high, development falls (cognitive load)
similar to Locke (1982) with goal setting and performance, and yerkes-dodson curve
buffers: high learning orientation and high feedback availability
Hughes et al. (2020)
The role of work environment in training sustainment: a meta-analysis
work environment supports (peer, supervisor, and organizational) were positively related to transfer of training
work environment accounts for 32% of variance in transfer
trainee characteristics = motivation for transfer was important as a mediator between the supports and actual transfer
shows that all level of support across the training is important
Dachner et al. (2021)
The future of employee development
Employee development is a shared responsibility between employees and employers
rather than passively waiting for organizations to assess and institute development, employees must view the organization as a developmental resource and take an active role in developing themselves (personal note: connects to all sorts of org resources being underutilized, like EAPs)
recommendations for proactive employee development:
use human capital theory
employees can take initiative and anticipate skill needs by actively soliciting feedback from managers and/or mentors well in advance of formal assessments
can then be reinforced in seeking growth because they recognize the benefit that proactive development brings for advancement / improving work environment
Noe (2023) learning model
What is learning? How are things learned?
Trainee characteristics + training design + work environment all influence learning, which influences the level of transfer of training
(trainee characteristics and work environment ALSO directly contribute to transfer of training beyond learning)
various outcomes of learning at work: verbal information, intellectual skills, motor skills, attitudes, cognitive strategies
Kanfer & Ackerman (1989)
Motivation and cognitive abilities: an integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition
Framework and empirical tests of the interactions between motivation and individual differences in abilities, to predict task performance
allocation of resources for self-regulation appears to depend on subjects’ perceived confidence in their capability for goal attainment
goal-setting intervention impeded task learning when it was presented BEFORE learning what the task itself was about, because it took away important attentional resources that they needed to be devoting for task understanding
connections back to automation being important / can also explain social facilitation for complex tasks
goal setting AFTER learning about the task was beneficial. individual difference of aptitude moderated: more useful among low aptitude individuals than high-aptitude individuals when implemented after the first phase of skill acquisition
Kraiger & Ford (2021)
The science of workplace instruction: learning and development applied to work (annual review)
distinguish between instructional events and learning events (learning events can come from instructional events like formal training, but many learning events happen outside of instructional events) –> learning outcomes (affect, knowledge, skills) –> instructional outcomes (transfer, performance, effectiveness)
in other words: learning events and learning outcomes mediate the relationship between instructional events and instructional outcomes (with learning presented as latent and instructional presented as observed)
workplace instruction is a function of 3 elements:
(a) the learner
(b) instructional principles [organize content, optimize sequencing of material, engage learner in own learning, conduct effective practice, develop past initial mastery]
(c) training delivery methods/media
Day et al. (2006) - table 1
Integrative Training Design Matrix
(ITDM), for streamlining
the design of instructional environments in a way that integrates the instructional design elements
in the matrix:
(a) feedback and trainer:trainee ratio
(b) vicarious learning
(c) hands-on practice
(d) meaningfulness
(e) time and structure of practice
(f) methods
each of these interact with each other to form specific recommendations
Chung et al. (2022)
Meta-analytic review of training motivation research in 21st century
used MASEM and FIMASEM to test the model
3 key antecedents of training motivation
(a) pre-training self-efficacy
(b) org commitment
(c) job involvement
also highlights important antecedents of training transfer (situational support, motivation to learn) and performance (cognitive ability, locus of control)
moderators
(a) relationship of self efficacy –> motivation to learn = stronger online and in field settings than in person and in lab studies
(b) motivation to learn –> learning performance = stronger for in-person compared to online
Noe (2023) model of transfer
Transfer of training is more likely to occur when the trainee works on tasks during training (e.g., knowledge, equipment, or processes) that are very similar, if not identical, to the work environment (near transfer; true flight simulator). Far transfer = not exact to the same tasks in the real environment
Closed skills = linked to learning specific skills that are to be identically produced by the trainee on the job. There is only one correct way to complete a task if it requires closed skills.
Open skills = more general learning principles, not a single correct way to perform (e.g., customer service), more difficult to train
Meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage of knowledge and skills, enhance recall of training content
Types of evaluation, Kirkpatrick (1996)
Kirkpatrick (1996) - model has been critiqued
four levels of learning evaluation (pyramid, starting at the base)
reactions to training –> learning –> behavior –> results
Steve also adds in affect, and additionally, results include ROI (to what degree are the results higher than the cost of implementation)
Important to account for and correct bias due to CMV (Podsakoff et al., 2024)
Error management training
Keik & Frese (2005) learners are encouraged to intentionally make errors and learn from the errors
error management training led to greater transfer than error avoidant training, mediated by emotion control and metacognitive ability (importance of self-regulatory process during training)
tends to be more useful in open skills than closed skills
Training needs assessment (TNA; Noe, 2023)
Needs assessment refers to the process used
to determine whether training is necessary.
Needs assessment typically involves organizational analysis, person analysis, and task analysis.
An organizational analysis = what is the context in which training will occur
Person analysis = who needs the training
Task analysis = what tasks and KSAs are needed to be developed for employees to complete their tasks
Common reasons: legislation, customer complaints, changes to products/services, improve quality, standardizing basic skills
What happens without TNA
Noe (2023)
Training may not be needed at all.
A manager could be asking for training as a solution to a problem that actually has other underlying reasons for being there
Training could have the wrong content and objectives
Trainees may not have the prerequisite skills or knowledge to learn adequately from the training
Unnecessary spending of resources due to inefficiency, not actually needed, training on the wrong thing, etc
Feedback and practice for training
From steve’s slides (use Noe 2023 if needed)
Feedback should focus on specific behaviors and be provided ASAP
2 basic functions of feedback
(a) cuing - providing corrective information
(b) Reinforcement – fostering maintenance of appropriate responses
Feedback can use SBI[G] (situation, behavior, impact, [guidance])
Practice should include pre-practice support, helping the trainee process information and apporach practice appropriately, set mastery AND learning goals, support reflection
PRACTICE MUST BE EXPERIENTIAL.
Overlearning (repetition) –> to the point of automaticity
Massed vs spaced practice (spaced is typically better)
Whole vs part practice
Stimulus variety
Provide feedback during practice phase
Donovan & Radosevich (1999)
Team training (Salas et al., 2006)
Brauer (2024)
Devine & Ash (2022)
Diversity training goals, limitations, and promise: a review of the multidisciplinary literature
At the time of the review, more than half of mid-large size US companies offered some sort of diversity training
Many trainings demonstrated favorable post-intervention effects with respect to employee self-reported cognitive, affective, and skill-based outcomes, some studies gave more complicated results.
- some backlash against non-white employees
- less diversity in workforce later on
suggest that rather than making diversity training mandatory/voluntary, organizations can equip socially connected and highly respected individuals with tools and motivation to show other members of a social network how to promote greater equity
Legate & Weinstein (2024)
Motivation science can improve DEI training
Strategies for motivating change from motivational interviewers
(a) build rapport through empathy
(b) elicit ambivalence (reflecting on resistance to change)
(c) attending to self motivational statements (e.g., “if you could make the work environment more inclusive, what would you do?”)
(d) support self-efficacy, provide affirmations
all of these align with components of SDT
Paluck et al. (2021)
