Tutorial 07

Question 1

How many bilinguals are there?

Answer 1

est. 60% of the population is multilingual, 43% speak two languages

Question 2

What is bilingualism?

Answer 2

• not one definition → depends on a large number of factors and research focus
• level of proficiency (speaking, writing, listening, reading)
• language competence (dominance and balance)
• frequency of use (context, domain, modality)
• number of languages (multilingualism, languages and dialects)
• age of acquisition (simultaneous, sequential, late)
• continuum, high variability across a person’s life span

Question 3

neurological hot spots of language

Answer 3

• Broca’s area (Inferior frontal gyrus):
speech production
• Wernicke’s area (left superior temporal
gyrus): language comprehension
• arcuate fasciculus: connection between
Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area,
conceptual representations

Question 4

What did Pitres find out in 1895?

Answer 4

different neuronal circuits within the same brain area

Question 5

What did the Scoresby-Jackson (1867) patient led to believe?

Answer 5

bilingual patient with severe language loss of only one language
-> different brain areas

Question 6

What is Lateralisation?

Answer 6

area where primary function occurs

Question 7

Where is language lateralized?

Answer 7

language is mostly left lateralized
• conflicting results in bilinguals: left lateralized or bilateralized
• modulator of lateralisation: AoA (age of acquisition)
• early bilinguals more bilateralized, late bilinguals more left lateralized

Question 8

Lateralisation – left hemisphere

Answer 8

Linear reasoning
Filling in forms: letters and numbers
Temporal-order judgements

Question 9

Lateralization – right hemisphere

Answer 9

Holistic reasoning (metaphors and intonation)
Feelings and intuitions, comprehension of emotional content
Prosody, sentence function

Question 10

Activation of broca‘s area

Answer 10

AoA -> different areas
Proficiency -> no differences

Question 11

Broca‘s area – activation L1 vs L2

Answer 11

not localisation of activation but degree of strength of activation differed
stronger activation in L2, mostly in IFC → more effortful, less efficient

Question 12

Wernicke‘s area activation

Answer 12

• no differences
• semantic task → no differences
• nonsemantic task → differences

Question 13

Wernicke‘s area – Activation: L1 vs L2: early vs late bilinguals

Answer 13

• low/moderate proficiency → smaller and more distributed activation across hemispheres
• high proficiency → similar activations of L1 and L2
• L2 → more activated areas in late bilinguals than early bilinguals

Question 14

Language comprehension in bilinguals

Answer 14

• flexible and variable → considerable plasticity in network
• proficiency and exposure to L2 seem to modulate functional mapping more than AoA

Question 15

production mechanisms may only influence comprehension …

Answer 15

When context is provided

Question 16

Language selective or nonselective
access?

Answer 16

• research suggests both languages are activated
• in isolation and at all levels of representation

Question 17

Language production in bilinguals

Answer 17

• potentially parallel activation
• language interference

Question 18

language-specific and non-specific mechanisms

Answer 18

• cognitive control and inhibition processes more pronounced in low proficient bilinguals
• possibly different mechanisms in highly and less proficient bilinguals

Question 19

Which brain areas are activated during translation?

Answer 19

activation of anterior cingulate and bilateral subcortical structures (putamen and head of caudate nucleus) during translation
• possibly due to need for greater coordination of mental operations

Question 20

Bilingual advantage debate

Answer 20

• Advantage has been neither proven or disproven
• Some argues that it enhances cognitive performance some are not

Question 21

Does having a higher level of cognitive abilities make someone bilingual?
Or
Does using multiple languages train and enhance cognitive abilities?

Answer 21

Possible explanation:
- Complex interplay between genetics, language use, environmental factors and demands, and individual differences

Question 22

Code-switching

Answer 22

-The practice of alternating between two or more languages in a single conversation or context
- Found in multilingual communities and shaped by cultural, situational, and cognitive factor

Question 23

3 types of code switching (Poplack, 1980)

Answer 23

1) tag-switching (discourse markers): Mixing languages within a sentence
2) intersentential code-switching: switching between sentences
3) intrasentential code-switching: switching within sentences

Question 24

Cognitive control and task switching: Contradictory results – positive

Answer 24

• Code-switching requires inhibition of the non-target language and switching to the target language.
• Frequent code-switchers perform better in Stroop and Flanker tasks due to improved inhibitory control
  (Yim & Bialystok, 2012)
  Stroop Task: Measures inhibition control when participants must ignore a competing stimulus.
  Flanker Task: Assesses attention control and conflict resolution.

Question 25

Cognitive control and task switching: Contradictory results! – negative

Answer 25

- Festman et al. (2010): Frequent switchers showed slower responses in tasks requiring inhibition, indicating potential cognitive costs -Increased cognitive load may result from constant engagement with competing linguistic systems.

Question 26

Working Memory: Contradictory results! – summary

Answer 26

- Many studies suggest that bilingualism provides cognitive benefits, BUT the evidence is not uniformly supportive. - Factors such as task complexity, population characteristics, and methodological limitations contribute to these mixed findings.

Question 27

Code-switching: working memory – positive

Answer 27

- Switching between languages relies on working memory to manage competing language systems. - Enhanced working memory capacity in frequent switchers (Calabria et al., 2015) - N-Back Task: Tests working memory by requiring participants to track and recall items in a sequence.

Question 28

Code-switching: working memory – negative

Answer 28

Paap et al. (2015): No bilingual advantage observed in N-Back tasks, suggesting that working memory benefits may not generalize across all bilinguals

Question 29

Higher volumes of gray matter in bilinguals in …

Answer 29

in domain-general control areas (e.g., bilateral ACC, dlPFC, IFG, IPL, and precentral gyrus), especially for early bilinguals.

Question 30

Lower gray matter volumes in bilinguals in …

Answer 30

In (e.g., bilateral PFC, right MTG, left MTG/STG, right postcentral gyrus, bilateral parahippocampal gyrus, left cerebellum ), highlighting mixed findings.

Question 31

How does Bilingualism affect gray matter volume?

Answer 31

• Relationships between grey matter and performance differ between bilinguals and monolinguals (e.g., Simon and Flanker tasks). • Even brief training (3 weeks to 4 months) can rapidly increase grey matter volume in regions such as the left putamen, left IFG pars triangularis, and bilateral IFG pars opercularis. • Some studies found no differences between bilinguals and monolinguals in gray matter volume.

Question 32

How is the cortical thickness in bilinguals?

Answer 32

- bilinguals exhibit increased cortical thickness in regions associated with control and language processing (e.g., right ACC, bilateral orbital frontal, temporal, and occipital areas) - even short term L2 learning (3 weeks to 4 months) enhances cortical thickness in regions such as the right dlPFC, bilateral lFC, left ACCC and right MTG

Question 33

Surface area in bilinguals

Answer 33

Age-related surface area reductions in bilinguals are less pronounced than in monolinguals in regions such as the left insula and bilateral anterior temporal lobe

Question 34

Cortical foldings in bilinguals

Answer 34

Bilinguals demonstrate resilience against age-related reductions in gyrification in specific brain areas (e.g. right ACC, posterior cingulate and enthorinal cortex)

Question 35

Subcortical reshaping in bilinguals

Answer 35

Differences in the shape of structures like the bilateral putamen, bilateral or right thalamus, bilateral or left globus pallidus and right caudate are linked to bilingualism. Bilinguals with limited immersion experience have also shown reshaping in parts of bilateral caudate compared to monolinguals

Question 36

Anatomical asymmetry and interhemispheric organization in bilinguals

Answer 36

Bilingualism affects corpus callosum volume and cortical asymmetry, potentially enhancing communication between hemispheres

Question 37

White matter in bilinguals

Answer 37

• Findings are mixed, with bilinguals showing both higher and lower FA(Fractional Anisotropy) in tracts like the SLF and IFOF, influenced by factors such as age and language experience. • Short-term L2 learning enhances white matter integrity below the right IFG pars opercularis and increased connectivity in the right opercularis-caudate and opercularis-STG/SMG pathways. However, these increases have decreased one year after training. • In early cognitive and neural development, bilingual children show distinct white matter microstructure and greater changes over two years. Simultaneous bilinguals have the highest FA compared to monolinguals and sequential bilinguals, particularly in pathways connecting the frontal and temporal-occipital lobes.

Question 38

Emotional advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism

Answer 38

- Slower emotional processing in L2 than in L1. - Different interpretation of emotional meanings across languages and cultures. - Influence of language on personal identity. + Lower sensitivity to negative words in L2. + Greater sensitivity to positive words in L1.

Question 39

Cognitive advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism

Answer 39

- Increased cognitive load. - Slower processing in non-dominant language. - Language switching incurs a cost. + Enhances emotional memories recall. + Cognitive flexibility and plasticity. + Cognitive development, communication skills. + Cognitive aging decline.

Question 40

Sociocultural advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism

Answer 40

- Language loss. - Discrimination and social exclusion. - Cultural Identity Confusion or loss. - Cultural Misunderstandings + Social flexibility. + Cultural heritage conservation. + Improve quality life. + Cultural Exchange. + Diversity societies. + Different interactions among the language we speak.

Question 41

Educational-career advantages/disadvantages of bilingualism

Answer 41

- Increased cognitive load. - Limited job prospects. + International study + Applying for scholarships + Job prospects, higher employability and salaries, career development.