U1 U2 U3 Flashcards
What are the 13 General Guidelines?
- No Horseplay.2. Only perform experiments that are authorized by your teacher. Follow all instructions. Read all instructions before beginning work and ask for help if you don’t understand.3. Don’t waste materials by using more than instructed. Ask What are the teacher before, if you think you need more.4. When you enter the room, never touch any equipment or other lab materials until you are instructed to.5. No food or gum on lab days. Water allowed away from lab and only with washed hands.6. Keep all work areas clean and tidy, other materials under tables, push in chairs.7. Know where all the safety equipment is, where the fire alarms are and exits are located in relation to the classroom and know what to do in case of an emergency.8. Be aware of surroundings and tell teacher if anything is unsafe.9. Dispose of all waste properly10. Only use lab equipment directed by your teacher, read all labels and instructions provided before using lab equipment.11. Wash hands after all lab activities, hands away from face, mouth and belongings.12. Do not wander, distract other students, or transport lab equipment around the classroom(unless instructed).13. carry tips away and pointed down and grasp by handles when using sharp tools. Always cut away from your body and belongings
What are the 4 Clothing Guidelines?
- Goggles and gloves must be worn any time chemicals, heat or glassware are used.2. No loose items (hair, clothes, jewelry).3. Close toed shoes.4. Make sure you are weaaring the correct clothes when it is lab day.
What are the 9 Dissection Safety Guidelines?
- Treat all specimens with respect and care.2. Handle all instruments with extreme care.3. Always cut away from your body and away from others.4. Avoid contact with preservative chemicals.5. Never remove preserved specimens or tissues from the lab.6. Store specimens between lab periods as directed by your instructor.7. Dispose of dissected materials in the appropriate waste container as indicated by your instructor.8. Clean up your work area, wash and dry dissecting tools and return all supplies to the correct place.9. Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water after cleanup.
What are the 2 Accidents and Injuries Guidelines?
1.Report all accidents and injuries immediately. If a chemical gets in the eye, wash it out.2. All chemicals in the laboratory should be considered dangerous, don’t touch,taste, or smell unless instructed.
What are the 4 Glassware and Equipment Guidelines?
- Don’t touch glass or throw it in the trash can. Tell the teacher imminently when glass breaks.2. Don’t use chipped or cracked glass and don’t place hot glass in cold water (or Vise Versa).3. Grasp plug, not cord, when unplugging charger.4. Report any damaged electrical equipment to your teacher immediately. Don’t used damaged or wet electrical equipment
What are the 2 Heating Substances Guidelines
- Never leave a hot plate unattended. Turn off when not in use.2. Never look into a container that is being heated. Never point the open end of a heated test tube at yourself or others.
What are the Guideline headlines and how many within them?
- General Guidelines 132. Dissection Safety Guidelines 93. Heating Substances Guidelines 24. Glassware and Equipment Guidelines 45. Clothing Guidelines 46. Accidents and Injuries 2
What does Biology mean?
Study of Living Things
What does Biology mean?
Study of Living Things
What are some examples of Biology?
Human BodyMolecularMicroorganismsPlants and Animals
What are the Characteristics of Living Things?
- Organized in one or more cells- Universal Genetic code(DNA)- Respond to Environment(Stimuli)- Reproduce- Grow and Develop- Maintaining Homeostasis(Regulate, Stability)- Obtain and Use Energy- Evolve(as group, over time)
What is the Scientific Method Steps?
Question Research Hypothesis ——- Become Background Troubleshoot ————- Test within Experiment info l Procedure Working? l ———————–no yes l Analyze Data l Conclusion l align with hypo not align ————- Comm Results
Goggles
protects eyes
Bunsen Burner
used to heat substances
Graduated Cylinder
accurately measures liquid volumes
Spot Plate
a flat plate with multiple “wells” used as small test tubes
Pipet Bulb
used to pull liquid up into a pipet
Stirring Rod
used for stirring
Evaporating Dish
liquids are heated over a flame so that they evaporate, leaving a solid residue
Crucible Tongs
to hold hot crucibles
Forceps
used to pick up or hold small items
Watch Glass
to hold solids while being weighed, or as a cover for a beaker
Beaker
used to hold liquids
Thermometer
measures temperature
Crucible and Cover
used to hold small amounts of chemicals during heating at high temperatures
Test Tube Clamp
clamp used to hold hot test-tube
Buret
dispensing and transferring known volumes of fluids
Balance
an instrument for determining weight
Dropper Pipet or Disposable Pipet
for drawing in a liquid and expelling it in drops
Volumetric Flask
for making up solutions to a known volume
Funnel
for pouring liquid or other substance through a small opening
Utility Clamp
used to hold laboratory glassware
Mortar and Pestle
used to grind up materials
Volumetric Pipet
measures small amounts of liquids accurately
Striker
used to light bunsen burner
Rubber Stopper
used to cover ends of test tubes and flasks
Spatula
small scoop used to transfer powder and crystal chemicals
Wire Gauze
used to support a container (such as a beaker or flask) during heating
Test Tube Rack
holds 5-6 test-tubes in a row
Wash Bottle
used to rinse various pieces of laboratory glassware used to rinse various pieces of laboratory glassware
Ring Stand
holds funnels, wire gauze above table
Erlenmeyer Flask
used to hold liquids, has narrow neck to prevent splashes
Ring Clamp
used with ring stand to hold a glass container
Clay Triangle
used to hold a crucible while the crucible is heated
Test Tube
open tube used to hold liquids
Weighing Paper
used for weighing and transferring powers and crystals
Filter Paper
special paper used to separate solids from liquids
Fume Hood
used to prevent a person from exposure to hazardous fumes from chemicals
Hot Plate/ Stir Plate
used to heat and stir substances
What are the expectations and norms as listed in the syllabus?
- Be in your assigned seat, ready to begin when the class period starts.2. Always bring all required materials with you to class, and put away all non-class materials before class begins.3. Show respect to your classmates, teacher, classroom, and yourself, in both your words and actions.4. Do not disrupt the classroom learning environment for your fellow students and teacher. Follow your teacher’s procedures to ask questions or ask for help (ex. raising your hand and waiting to be called on).5. Cell phones, computers, and other electronic devices must be put away in a location designated by the teacher, unless specifically directed otherwise for a class activity.6. If an issue arises or you have a question, communicate with your teacher about it as soon as possible.
What is the lasa honor code
On my honor, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on my work, nor do I tolerate academic dishonesty in others.
What is a hypothesis?
A testable explanation or prediction based on the observation and the scientist’s prior knowledge
What is a null hypothesis?
A prediction that there is no relationship between two variables.
What is an independent variable?
The factor or condition being changed“the cause”X-axis
What is a dependent variable?
The factor or condition being measured“the effect”Y-axis
What is a control variable?
A factor or condition that is keptconstant throughout the experiment
What is a control group?
This group experiences the sameconditions as the experimental group,except for the single independentvariable being studied
What is a controlled experiment?
done in lab
What is a natural experiment?
observing andanalyzing something happeningnaturally, out of control of the scientist
What is quantitative data?
Based on numbers
What is Qualitative data?
Based on Observation
What is an atom?
the basic unit of matter.
What is an element?
a pure substancethat consists of one type ofatom.
What is an atom composed of?
Atoms are composed of threesubatomic particles:
What is a Proton?
Positively charged subatomic particle, found inthe nucleus.
What is a Neutron?
Subatomic particle with no charge, found inthe nucleus.
What is an electron?
Negatively charged subatomic particle, foundoutside of the nucleus.
What are the first 3 layers of electron shells made of?
1st Orbital: Maximum 2 electrons2nd Orbital: Maximum 8 electrons3rd Orbital: Maximum 18 electrons
What is an atomic number?
the number of protons in the atom.
What is a mass number?
the total number of protons and neutrons inthe nucleus of an atom.
What is atomic weight?
the weighted average of the masses of anelement’s isotopes.
What is an isotope?
Atoms off the same element that differ in the numbers of neutrons they contain. Identified by mass number.
What is a valence shell?
the outer orbital/electron shell.
What is a cell?
basic unit of life
What is a compound?
a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in definite proportions.
What is a molecule?
made when two or more atoms are chemically bonded together?
What are the two types of chemical bonds?
Ionic and Covalent
What are ionic bonds?
Chemical bond formed when one or moreelectrons are transferred from one atom to another.
What is an ion?
An atom that either gains electrons or loses electrons.As such, it is either positively or negatively charged.
What are covalent bonds ?
Chemical bond formed when the electronsare shared between atoms.
What do carbons four valence electrons allow them to do?
bond with many otheratoms. As such, chains of carbon often formthe backbone of macromolecules.
What are macromolecules?
Macromolecules are largemolecules made frommany smaller molecules.
What are Monomers and Polymers?
Monomers: the small units.* Polymers: the large units.
What is polarity in a hydrogen molecule?
a water moleculeis polar because there isan uneven distribution ofelectrons between thehydrogen atoms andoxygen atoms. Thenegative pole is near theoxygen atom and thepositive pole is near thehydrogen atoms
What are Intramolecular forces?
forces that holdatoms together withina molecule.
What are Intermolecular forces?
forces that existbetween molecules.
what is a hydrogen bond?
attraction between ahydrogen atom andanother atom.
What is cohesion and adhesion?
attraction of molecules of the same substance.attraction between molecules of different substances.
What is Capillary Action?
tendency of water to rise in a thin tube.
What is a mixture?
a material composed of two or more elements orcompounds that are physically mixed together but not chemicallycombined.
What is a suspension?
mixture of water and nondissolved material
What is a solution?
type of mixture in which all components are evenlydistributed
What are solutes and solvents?
Solute: substance that is dissolved in solution. Ex: sugar,saltSolvent: dissolving substance in a solution. Ex: water
What is hydrophobic?
nonpolarmolecules that repel watermolecules. “Water fearing”
What is hydrophilic?
molecules formingionic or a hydrogen bond withwater molecules. “Waterloving”
What is surface tension?
The surface becomes stronger because they exert more force horizontally when they cant exert it up(happens to water)
What is Dehydration Synthesis?
A chemical reaction that builds upmolecules by losing watermolecules.
What is hydrolysis?
The process of splitting acompound into fragments with theaddition of water; a kind of reactionthat is used to break down polymersinto simpler units, e.g. starch intoglucose.
What is Anabolism?
The process ofcreating large molecules fromsmaller molecules, utilizingenergy.
What is Catabolism
The process ofbreaking large molecules downinto smaller molecules,releasing energy.
How many types of biomolecule classes are there and what are they?
There are fourtypes:* Carbohydrates (sugars)* Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen* Lipids (fats)* Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen* Proteins* Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, andNitrogen* Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA)* Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,Nitrogen, and Phosphorous
What is a carbohydrate and functions?
Organic compounds made of carbon,hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Functionsinclude:■ Most carbohydrates are brokendown into glucose which istaken up by cells to make ATP● Chemical formula forglucose is C6H12O6ATP uses phosphate in a process of catabolism when giving energy.■ ATP is used as a source ofenergy for a variety ofmetabolic processesmono,di,polysaccharides?!?!?!?!?
What is a Monosaccharides?
building block* Glucose: one of the body’s primary energy sources* Fructose:naturally occuring sugar common infruits
What is a Disaccharides?
Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides combines* Sucrose (glucose + fructose), table sugar* Lactose (glucose + galactose), milk sugar
What is a Polysaccharides?
Polysaccharides: 2+ monosaccharides* Starch (chain of glucose); Used byplants to store sugar* Glycogen (chain of glucose); Used byanimals to store sugar* Cellulose (chain of glucose); Tough andflexible fiber that gives plants strengthand flexibility
+What are Lipids and Functions?
Organic compounds made mostly fromcarbon and hydrogen atoms and aregenerally not soluble in water.Non-polar and hydrophillicFunctions:* Store energy* Biological membranes* Steroids, such as hormones,act as chemical messengers* Waterproof coverings (plants)
What is a saturated fatty acid?
A fattyacid that contains carbonsonly joined by single bonds.* Maximum number of hydrogens* Examples: Fats, waxes
What is an unsaturated fatty acid?
A fatty acid that contains atleast one double bondbetween carbon atoms.* Fewer hydrogens* Examples: cooking oils
What are trans fats?
Trans Fats are unsaturated fatswhich are uncommon in nature, butcan be created artificially (chemicallyaltered vegetable oil)..Trans fats are edible,but have been known toraise the risk ofcoronary heart disease.Has been found that people that consume transfats experience a significant increase in LDL(bad) cholesterol) without a corresponding rise inHDL (good cholesterol).
What are proteins and functions?
Macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen.Functions:* Control the rate of reactions (enzymes)* Regulate cell processes (transport substances, help fight diseases)* Form cellular structures* The building block (monomer) of a protein is the amino acid* Amino acids: Organic compounds with an amino group (-NH2) onone end and a carboxyl group (-COOH) on the other end.* Multiple amino acids linked together (via covalent peptide bonds) formpolypeptides (polymer).* A protein is a function molecule built from one or morepolypeptides.
How many types of amino acids are there and what must they contain?
There are over 20 differentkinds of amino acids. Allamino acids consist of:* Central carbon atom* Carboxyl group* Amino group* Hydrogen atom* Variable “R” group
Whats the difference in the different types of amino acids?What are R groups?
The only difference in the 20kinds of amino acids is the “R”group.* R groups vary in size, can be polar or nonpolar,acid or basic* The shape and function of a protein is determinedby the “R” group.
How are amino acids assembled?
Amino acids are assembled intopolypeptide chains according toinstructions coded in DNA.Scientists describe protein ashaving four levels of structurewhich enables a protein tocarry out a specific job. .
What is the first level of folding for proteins?
Primary Structure: The sequence ofamino acids.Sequence is defined by genes withinmolecules of DNA.
What is the second level of folding for proteins?
Secondary Structure: Coilsand folding of the aminoacid chain.* Hydrogen bonding between aminoacids can form helix or pleated sheet.
What is the third level of folding for proteins?
Tertiary Structure: The three-dimensional shape of theprotein that is stabilized by interactions betweenR-groups(side chains).
What is the fourth level of folding for proteins?
Quaternary Structure: Association between two or moredifferent polypeptide chains (protein subunits)found inonly some proteins.
What is the Secondary Structure: Alpha Helix?
Keratin in hair and the subunits ofhemoglobin have a helix secondarystructure.Coiled structure due to hydrogenbonding between Oxygens ofcarboxylic acid group of one aminoacid and hydrogens of the aminogroup of another amino acid.
What is the Secondary Structure: Beta Pleated Sheet?
Silk, is a natural protein fiber, thatconsists of polypeptide chains thatrepeat back and forth uponthemselves. Hydrogen bonds holdadjacent segments of thepolypeptide together.* Where does silk come from?* From the cocoons of the larvae ofmoth caterpillars.
What is a nucleic acid?
Macromolecules containing hydrogen, oxygen,nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus.* Monomer: nucleotide* Polymer: nucleic acidsNucleotides have three parts:* A 5-carbon sugar* A phosphate group* A Nitrogenous baseNucleoside has the same parts except no nitrogenous baseNucleic acids store and transmit hereditary or geneticinformation.* Examples: DNA, RNANitrogenous Base DNA: A,C,G,TRNA: A,C,G,UThe sugars and phosphates lie onthe outside of the helix, formingthe backbone of the DNA○ This portion of the moleculeis sometimes calledthe sugar-phosphate backbone.● The two strands of the helix run inopposite directions○ Meaning that the 5′ end ofone strand is paired up withthe 3′ end of its matchingstrand.○ This is referred toas antiparallel orientationand is important for thecopying of DNA.
What are the Essential and non essential amino acids?
Essential amino acids(9) you cant produce them, you must get from natureNon-Essential amino acids(11) you can produce them using essential amino acids
What are ex of physical and chemical changes and what is equilibrium/homeostasis?
2H2+O2 —> 2H2O H2O(l) —> H2O(g)Chemical PhysicalEquilibrium is when a reaction goes both ways( <—->)
Chemical vs Physical Reaction?
Chemical reactions involve the breaking and/or forming of bonds. This is DIFFERENT from a physical change, like something changing state or being cut into pieces. One common misconception is that something melting/boiling/freezing/etc is a chemical reaction. It is NOT. In order for something to be a chemical change/reaction, the chemical itself must be changing in some way. So for example, if you have an ice cube that melts, it is still water. If you boil water, it is STILL H2O, it just happens to now be a gas versus a liquid. So, those would both be physical changes. If you were to take water and break it apart into hydrogen and oxygen gas, though, that would then be a chemical change, because it is no longer H2O.
What is a coefficient in terms of a reaction?
When looking at a chemical reaction, the number in front of a substance is called the coefficient, and it tells you how many of that particular substance is needed for the reaction to occur. In this example with water, you need 2 molecules of H2 and only 1 molecule of O2, in order to form 2 molecules of H2O.
What are the letters to know the states of matter?
Some chemical reactions will have a letter in parentheses after each substance. The letter tells you what state of matter that substance is in. For example, if this reaction said O2 (g), that would tell you that it is oxygen gas specifically. “g” for gas, “l” for liquid, “s” for solid, “aq” for aqueous (dissolved)
Exothermic Reaction?
An exothermic reaction releases energy from the system in the form of heat.. Exothermic reactions can happen on their own (“spontaneously”)- The reaction is colder than surroundings
Endothermic Reaction?
An endothermic reaction absorbs energy from its surrounding in the form of heat.endothermic reaction cannot happen unless there is an input of energy.- The reaction is hotter than surroundings
Know the potential energy diagram?(how do you determine if its endo or exothermic based off the graph?)
We call these types of graphs “potential energy diagrams”. You can determine if a reaction is endothermic or exothermic by looking at the energy level of the products versus the reactants.
Explain the example reaction of the formation of water?
2H2(g)+O2 —> 2H2O(g) + Energythis reaction releases energy, and happens spontaneouslyin order to reverse this reaction, you have to input energy, it doesn’t occur on its own!EX. You have to run an electric current through water to decompose it into hydrogen and oxygen gas!
What is activation energy(Ea)? and their relation to exo/endothermic reactions?
Energy needed to start a reactionIn the case of an exothermic reaction, the reactants are at a higher energy level as compared to the products, as shown below in the energy diagrams. In other words, the products are more stable than the reactants. Overall ΔH for the reaction is negative, i.e., energy is released in the form of heat.In the case of an endothermic reaction, the reactants are at a lower energy level compared to the products—as shown in the energy diagram below. In other words, the products are less stable than the reactants. Since we are forcing the reaction in the forward direction towards more unstable entities, overall ΔH for the reaction is positive, i.e., energy is absorbed from the surroundings.
What is a catalyst?
speeds up chemical reaction by lowering activation energyReusable!
What is an enzyme?
a biological catalyst (protein!)Reusable!
what does the enzyme actually do to the substrate to make the activation energy lower?
The answer depends on the enzyme. Some enzymes speed up chemical reactions by bringing two substrates together in the right orientation. Others create an environment inside the active site that’s favorable to the reaction (for instance, one that’s slightly acidic or non-polar). The enzyme-substrate complex can also lower activation energy by bending substrate molecules in a way that facilitates bond-breaking, helping to reach the transition state.
Factors that may affect the active site and enzyme function include:
Temperature. A higher temperature generally makes for higher rates of reaction, enzyme-catalyzed or otherwise. However, either increasing or decreasing the temperature outside of a tolerable range can affect chemical bonds in the active site, making them less well-suited to bind substrates. Very high temperatures (for animal enzymes, above 40∘C or 104∘F) may cause an enzyme to denature, losing its shape and activity.pH. pH can also affect enzyme function. Active site amino acid residues often have acidic or basic properties that are important for catalysis. Changes in pH can affect these residues and make it hard for substrates to bind. Enzymes work best within a certain pH range, and, as with temperature, extreme pH values (acidic or basic) can make enzymes denature.
What is Denature?
Breaking of enzyme down
What are substrates?
Reactants
What is the slowest known biological reaction without an enzyme catalyst(what is that reaction with a catalyst)?
Protein phosphatase enzyme, helps regulate communication between human cells, including communication related to health/diseases1 trillion years w/ out10 milliseconds with
Would there be life w/ out catalysts?
no
What are enzymes structure and what are their names usually derived from?
Pictures shows TERTIARY-remember enzymes are proteins, they will have tertiary structure. Some quaternary. Enzyme names are usually derived from the reaction it catalyzes.
What is specificity in an enzyme?
Shape determines function - an enzyme is specific for a substrate!They only act on a specific substrate.
Understand the difference between Enzyme/Substrate complex and Enzyme/Products complex?
Enzyme changes shape slightly as substrate binds.
What is a pH level?
The pH level measures how acidic or basic a solution is, by measuring the concentration of H+ ions that are present!
Acid and Base(pH)?
AcidCompound that releases H+ ions in a solutEX -> HCl (hydrochloric acid), H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)BaseCompound that releases OH- ions in a solutionEX -> sodium hydroxide (NaOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
What are properties of more acidic and more basic/alkaline pH’s?
More AcidicLower pHMore H+ ionsLess OH- ionsMore Basic/AlkalineHigher pHLess H+ ionsMore OH- ions
What happens to acids and bases in an aqueous solution?
(a) In aqueous (watery) solution, an acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and anions(negative). Every molecule of a strong acid dissociates, producing a high concentration of H+. (b) In aqueous solution, a base dissociates into hydroxyl ions (OH–) and cations(Positive). Every molecule of a strong base dissociates, producing a high concentration of OH–.
What is a buffer?
A buffer is a weak acid (only some of the substance dissociates completely into H+ ions) or base (only some of the substance dissociates completely into OH- ions) that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH.
What is an example of a buffer(hint:blood)?
Blood contains large amounts of carbonic acid (weak acid) & bicarbonate (weak base). Together they help maintain blood pH at 7.4. If blood pH falls below 6.8 or rises above 7.8, one can become sick or die. The bicarbonate neutralizes excess acids in the blood while the carbonic acid neutralizes excess bases.
What is the lock and key model?
Lock-and-Key Model. In this model, we describe the substrate as a “key” that fits intothe enzyme’s “lock”, or its active site. Since the active site is the exact shape thatmatches up with the substrate’s shape in order for it to fit, it’s similar to how a lock isthe same shape as a key, allowing it to unlock if only that specific key is used on it.
What is the induced fit model?
This model was suggested in 1958, by Daniel Koshland. Itsuggests that the correct substrate is able to induce the active site to change shapeinto the proper alignment that enables the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. So,an active site on an enzyme is flexible and continues to change until the substrate isbound in the active site, at which point the final shape and charge is determined as theactive site conforms to the substrate’s shape, allowing the reaction to be catalyzed.
What is an inhibator?
An inhibitor is something that prevents an enzyme fromdoing its job to catalyze a reaction.
What does a light microscope do?
Uses lenses to magnify the image of an object by focusing light after it passes through the specimen
What are the pros of a light microscope?
Great for viewing living organismsEasy to use, common in schoolsCheaper, smaller, and simpler than other types of microscopesNo need for other special machinery or techniques (ie. vacuum, radiation) to operateObject being viewed retains its natural/authentic color
What are the cons of a light microscope?
Components may not be visible (most cells are transparent) unless using special stains (usually kills the cell)Lower resolution than other types A microscope can only show an image of something that is smaller than the wavelength of light used. Since visible light has a (relatively) long wavelength, and the light is diffracted/scattered as it passes through the matter and lenses, this makes the image blurry at higher magnifications.Maximum useful magnification - 1000xOnly shows a 2D image at higher magnifications
What are the two types of light microscopes?
Compound MicroscopeDissecting (or Stereo) Microscope
What is a compound microscope?
Typically 40x-400x, can view individual cells, 2-D image
What is a dissecting(stereo) microscope?
Typically 7-20x, can only view larger objects, 3-D image
What does an electron microscope do?
Uses a beam of electrons, instead of light, which are focused using magnetic fields
What are the pros of an electron microscope?
Higher resolution images (due to shorter wavelength of electrons vs. visible light)Good for viewing whole cells or individual components Can be used at higher magnifications, up to 1,000,000x
What are the cons of an electron microscope?
Requires sample to go through a special chemical fixation process and then viewed in a vacuumCannot view living cellsMuch more expensive, complicated, larger, and difficult to operate Requires a lot of specialized equipment to work properly and is very sensitive/easy to damage
What are the two types of electron microscopes?
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
What is a TEM microscope?
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)Beams pass through thin samples, creates flat/2D imagesGood for viewing cellular structures and larger proteins
What is a SEM microscope?
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)Beam scans the surface, producing high resolution 3D imagesGood for viewing surfaces of cells
What main thing did Robert Hooke discover?
He described the cork as having box-shaped, pore-like structures, which he called “cells” In 1665, Robert Hooke published observations he made using a microscope, in the book Micrographia.
What did Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discover?
He developed hundreds of simple single lens microscopes with an increased magnification! This allowed him to view organisms in more detailObserved many biological specimens using his single lens microscopes, and sent his findings to the Royal SocietySaw tiny creatures he called them animalcules(Micromolecules)
What did theodor schwann and schleiden discover?
Studied cells along with Matthias Schleiden, compared their studies of animal and plant cellsIn 1839, proposed classical cell theory:All living organisms are made of cellsCells are the basic unit of lifeBoth Schwann and Schleiden were mistaken about the origins of those cells, though, which was correctly identified by another scientist…
What did Rudolf Virchow add to the cell theory?
In 1855, he added a third conclusion to classical cell theory:All cells come from preexisting cells
What is the classical cell theory and what does the modern cell theory add to that?
Classical Cell Theory:- All living things are made up of cells- Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things- All cells are produced from existing cellsModern Cell Theory adds:- DNA contains hereditary information that is passed from cell to cell during division- All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities- Energy flow occurs within cells
What do all cells(most) have?
Contain DNA (molecule that carries genetic information)Are surrounded by a cell membrane (plasma membrane)Have cytoplasmHave ribosomesOn average range from 5 to 50 micrometers in diameter
What are traits of prokaryotes?
NO nucleusNO membrane-bound organellesThey are simple & unicellular
What are the two types of prokaryotes?
Bacteria vs. Archaea
What is bacteria?
Domain of prokaryotes that contain peptidoglycan in their cell wallsLive almost everywhere (fresh/salt water, land, within and on human bodies, etc)Some a “good” some are “bad” (ie. some “help” other organisms and some cause disease, etc)
What is archaea?
Domain of prokaryotes without peptidoglycan in their cell wallsMost live in extremely harsh environments (acidic, hot, salty, etc.)
What is peptidoglycan?
Polymer of sugars and amino acids that can surround the cell membrane
How do prokaryotes reproduce?
Binary fissionConjugation
What is Binary fission?
type of asexual reproduction in which an organism replicates its DNA and divides in half, producing 2 identical daughter cells.
What is Conjugation?
Process in which some prokaryotes exchange genetic information by moving a cell through a hollow bridge from one cell to another
How do favorable conditions affect asexual reproduction?
In favorable conditions, can grow and divide quickly! As fast as once every 20 minutes!In unfavorable conditions, many form an endospore (a thick internal wall that encloses DNA and a portion of the cytoplasm) that can remain dormant for months or years!
What is an endospore?
a thick internal wall that encloses DNA and a portion of the cytoplasm
What are prokaryotes two categories of their modes of nutrition?
AutotrophsHeterotrophs
How can you further split up auto trophs and heterotrophs?
Photo-AutotrophChemo-AutotrophPhoto-HeterotrophChemo-Heterotroph
What does a Photo-Autotroph do?
-Light as energy source-CO2 as C source
What does a Chemo-Autotroph do?
-Chemicals as energy source-CO2 as C source
What does a Photo-Heterotroph do?
-Light as energy source-Organic compounds as C source
What does a Chemo-Heterotroph do?
-Chemicals as energy source-Organic compounds as C source
Explain good prokaryotes?
Essential in maintaining ecological balance of the living world!Decomposers, Producers, Nitrogen fixers, Human uses
Explain bad prokaryotes?
Bacteria can be pathogensCan damage host tissues and cells, or cause tissue damage when they provoke an immune response (ex. tuberculosis)Can release toxins that act as poison, interfering or killing the host (ex. diptheria)
