U3 Barron's

Question 1

what are the two research methods used for developmental psychology + explain both?

Answer 1

• longitudinal and cross-sectional.
  longitudinal: over several years, one group of participants are observed. (several life-stages, childhood, adolescence, adulthood)
  can be more precise than cross-sectional but results take years to achieve.

Cross-sectional: different groups from different ages are studied, subject to confounding variables like differences in education, culture, and norms between generations.

Question 2

teratogens
+examples?

Answer 2

harmful chemicals that affect prenatal development negatively.
ex: alcohol may cause fetal alcohol syndrome.
heroin, cocaine can cause born addiction and even death for babies.

Question 3

reflexes
+examples w/ definitions?

Answer 3

specific, inborn, automatic responses to stimuli.

Infant reflexes:
- rooting: when touched on the cheek, the baby will turn its head to the direction it was touched.
- sucking: when given an object in the mouth, the infant will suck it.
- grasping: if an object is placed into an infant’s foot or hand, the infant will try to grasp it by its toes/fingers.
- moro reflex: when startled, the baby will fling their limbs out then make themselves as small as possible.
- Babinski reflex: when stroked on the foot, the baby will spread out its toes.

Question 4

visual cliff

Answer 4

a lab equipment made up of see through hard glass. The infant is instructed to crawl over the glass and come to the researcher’s lap but does not do so because he/she senses that there is a cliff.

Question 5

motor skills
+two types
+examples for each?

Answer 5

the ability to use your muscles and limbs to move or perform certain skills.
fine motor skills: writing,drawing, eating,etc.
gross motor skills:
rolling over, standing, walking

Question 6

biopsychological/neuropsychological theory on gender roles

Answer 6

attributes the beliefs and norms surrounding gender roles to biological/neurological differences between sexes, which have been shown by studies.
ex: female brains have larger corpus callosums than males.

Question 7

social-cognitive theory on gender roles

Answer 7

attributes norms surrounding gender roles to societal ideas and our own thoughts.

example: when a boy wants to wear a dress but he is criticized for it, and his sister is allowed to wear a dress, he might think that dresses are for girls only.

Question 8

continuity vs discontinuity

Answer 8

the debate about whether our development is continuous (at a steady rate, no disruptions) or discontinuous (rapid growth and little growth, big differences in time intervals)

Question 9

zone of proximal development

Answer 9

this concept explains the gap between what a learner (child) can do alone (CURRENT UNDERSTANDING) , what they can do with assistance from a more knowledgeable other, and what they cannot do even with assistance (CURRENTLY OUT OF REACH)

the zone of proximal development is the area where a learner can accomplish things with assistance.

Question 10

scaffolding
+example?

Answer 10

process in which the child is provided assistance to help them expand their zone of proximal development and develop their cognitive development further.
ex: peer tutoring

Question 11

stage theories are by definition….
continuous/discontinuous?

Answer 11

discontinuous because these theories involve specific stages in which development rates are different.

Question 12

psychosocial stage theory

+what did the psychologist that propose this believe in?

Answer 12

proposed by Erik Erikson, this theory includes 8 stages of life that all center around a social conflict. Erikson believed that our personality is significantly influenced by others.

Question 13

trust vs mistrust

Answer 13

stage 1 of psychosocial stage theory.

Infants will either learn to trust their caregivers and know that their requests are effective, or learn to not trust their caregivers because of neglect.

this stage shapes our trust in others for the rest of our lives.

Question 14

autonomy vs shame and doubt

Answer 14

Toddlers learn to control their emotions and bodies
ex: potty training
or they doubt their abilities.

Question 15

initiative vs guilt

Answer 15

Children start asking many questions about their environment. If encouraged, they take initiative in problem solving and critical thinking, but if scolded, they may feel guilty for asking questions.

Question 16

industry(competence) vs inferiority

Answer 16

as children start school, they feel competent and enjoy applying themselves to tasks or they feel incompetent and therefore inferior.

Question 17

identity vs role confusion
+imaginary audience?

Answer 17

Erikson believed that adolescence is the time where children start to explore different identities and find one they are comfortable with. So some adolescents may find a comfortable identity and be confident but others might not and might be confused in their identities.

Imaginary audience can be seen in adolescence where adolescents think everyone is always watching them and judging them.

Question 18

intimacy vs isolation

Answer 18

young adults figure out relationships with family, friends, and partners. Or they may feel socially isolated.

Question 19

generativity vs stagnation

Answer 19

Middle aged adults may start looking critically at their life paths, and if unhappy they might change their roles or other peoples’ roles to change their lives for the better.
+middle age crisis

Question 20

integrity vs despair

Answer 20

as we get older and reach the end of our lives, we may feel accomplished and satisfied with our life or we may fall into despair because of regret.

Question 21

jean piaget

Answer 21

developed the theory of cognitive development, consisting of 4 stages.

Question 22

assimilation

Answer 22

in Piaget’s theory, it is the process of interpreting new experiences through our existing schemas.

Question 23

accommodation
+example

Answer 23

some experiences do not fit our schemata, which means we have to change our schemas to fit those experiences.
ex: a 4 year old boy thinking only little boys wear cowboy boots, and then seeing an adult woman wearing cowboy boots.

Question 24

sensorimotor stage
+ which age group?
+which major challenge?

Answer 24

birth to 2 yrs old.
experiencing the world through our senses.
we develop our first cognitive schema.
a major challenge is acquiring object permanence: if a child senses the object even when they do not sense it directly (ex: behind a person).

Question 25

preoperational stage +which age group +behavior of children +which theory starts here? - which behavior is associated with that theory?

Answer 25

2 to 7 yrs old child starts to use mental symbols to represent real world objects: beginning of our language. children are egocentric in this stage. this stage also leads to the acquisition of "theory of mind": the ability to think about what others feel and think. --- this shows itself in "pretend play"

Question 26

concrete operational stage +which age group? +what behavior do they demonstrate+ example?

Answer 26

8 to 12 yrs old children in this stage demonstrate knowledge of "concepts of conservation": the ability to know that properties of objects are conserved even if they are changed in some way. ex: transferring a glass of water to a narrower, taller glass but not getting rid of the water in any way. if the child says the volume is the same, they have acquired this ability.

Question 27

formal operational stage +which age? +what behaviorss do people demonstrate in this stage?+example

Answer 27

12 yrs thru adulthood people can demonstrate adult reasoning aka abstract reasoning, manipulating objects and contrasting ideas in our mind without physically altering them/sensing them. +also hypothetical thinking so the ability to reason from a hypothesis. some other behaviors: - metacognition: the ability to think about how we think and evaluate our thinking - personal fable: in adolescents, the belief that they are unique and superior.

Question 28

information processing model in contrast to Piaget's theory +example?

Answer 28

this model suggests that thinking and cognitive skills develop gradually as we age (continuous) than discrete stages which is more discontinuous. ex: our attention span increases as we get older.

Question 29

phonemes

Answer 29

smallest units of sound used in a language.

Question 30

morphemes +example?

Answer 30

smallest units of meaningful sounds used in a language ex: "but" or prefixes: "pre-"

Question 31

syntax +examples?

Answer 31

the particular order in which words are spoken. ex: "the white duck" (eng) "el pato blanco" (spa)

Question 32

semantics

Answer 32

meanings of words and combinations of words create meaning- called semantics.

Question 33

babbling stage definition learned or innate?

Answer 33

1st stage of language development: babies babble and test out which sounds they can produce, they can produce any phonemes from any language- lose this ability overtime. this is innate.

Question 34

one-word/holophrastic stage

Answer 34

2nd stage in language development. babies speak in single words (holophrases) in this stage.

Question 35

telegraphic speech/two-word stage +example?

Answer 35

babies/toddlers speak in two or more words, meaning is there but syntax is absent. -children learn and apply grammar rules at this stage, sometimes misapplying them. (called "overgeneralization"/ "overregularization")

Question 36

language acquisition

Answer 36

psychologists agree that language is acquired through some combination of operant conditioning and an inborn ability to learn language (especially in the time period called the "critical period" in which we must learn a language or we have trouble learning it after.

Question 37

nativist theory of language acquisition

Answer 37

humans are born with the ability to acquire language.

Question 38

linguistic relativity hypothesis

Answer 38

proposed by Benjamin Whorf, the language we use might control or even limit our thinking.

Question 39

aphasia

Answer 39

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to the Wernicke's area.

Question 40

linguistic determinism

Answer 40

the strong form of Whorf's theory that language determines the way we think.

Question 41

linguistic influence

Answer 41

the weaker form of linguistic relativity (Whorf), language does affect the way we think but not as much as "linguistic determinism".

Question 42

attachment theory +two significant fields?

Answer 42

the theory of how attachment parenting (not just compassion and support for the child but also physical touch) influences development. contact comfort + secure attachment are two significant fields in this theory.

Question 43

contact comfort +which experiments?

Answer 43

the idea that physical contact positively influences the child's future temperament, the child seeks the mothers soft touch after being frightened as shown in Harry Harlow's experiments with baby monkeys. The monkeys with the fake mothers show more anxiety than monkeys with real mothers when put into new situations.

Question 44

temperament

Answer 44

how we react to stressful situations.

Question 45

secure attachment

Answer 45

when the parent consistently takes care of the child's needs and creates a strong, trusting bond with them

Question 46

avoidant attachment

Answer 46

when the caregiver is emotionally unavailable and does not provide compassion for the child.

Question 47

anxious-ambivalent attachment

Answer 47

when the child has ambivalent reactions to the caregiver, they resist being held by the parents but show separation anxiety when the caregivers leave.

Question 48

mary ainsworth

Answer 48

showed the results of attachment styles between parents and children by her experiments.

Question 49

ecological systems theory

Answer 49

this theory proposes that different systems of relationships impact human development. 5 systems of relationships exist.

Question 50

microsystem +example

Answer 50

direct interactions between the child and their immediate surroundings, ex: their parents.

Question 51

mesosystem +example

Answer 51

interactions between the immediate & indirect relationships (each 5 systems interact!) of the child. ex: child, parents, teacher; parents, teacher, etc.

Question 52

exosystem +example

Answer 52

indirect influences on the child's development. ex: if a parent is absent because they work to earn more money, the absence may influence the child. + the extra money can also influence the child by offering increased opportunities (ex: more money to pay for sports)

Question 53

macrosystem +example

Answer 53

the culture the child grows up in will influence their development. ex: if a child grows up in an open culture where any kind of work is encouraged for both genders, they become more open to different gender roles.

Question 54

chronosystem +example

Answer 54

suggests that times of change in our life affects our development. ex: puberty

Question 55

authoritarian parenting

Answer 55

sets very strict rules with no explanation. obedient behavior more encouraged than discussion. punishment is used more than rewarding. - children become distrustful and withdrawn.

Question 56

permissive parenting

Answer 56

sets no clear rules, rules are inconsistent. children are not punished for their behavior. -children could have emotional troubles and be dependent.

Question 57

authoritative parenting

Answer 57

sets consistent rules with reasons. Children know the consequences of their actions and why they are being punished/rewarded. - best type of parenting, children become more confident and perform better academically.

Question 58

studies done on parenting styles are.....

Answer 58

correlational, NOT causational.

Question 59

classical conditioning/associative learning +example?

Answer 59

learning to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that elicits a natural, REFLEXIVE response; causing that neutral stimuli to then elicit that reflexive response. ex: Pavlov's dog

Question 60

unconditioned stimulus (US) +example

Answer 60

the stimulus that elicits the natural reflexive response before conditioning ex: food makes the dog salivate.

Question 61

conditioned stimulus (CS) +example

Answer 61

the stimulus that the subject learns to associate with the reflexive response and therefore the stimulus starts eliciting that response. ex: the bell making the dog salivate.

Question 62

unconditioned response (UR) +example

Answer 62

the reflexive response the subject demonstrates before conditioning ex: the salivating of the dog after he sees food.

Question 63

conditioned response (CR) +example

Answer 63

the reflexive, but newly associated behavior that is demonstrated with the CS. ex: the salivating of the dog after the BELL rings.

Question 64

acquisition

Answer 64

when the subject learns to associate the CS with the reflexive behavior. they have acquired new behavior.

Question 65

extinction +example

Answer 65

when the subject no longer demonstrates CR because the CS and the US were not presented tgt anymore. ex: the dog does not salivate after the bell rings.

Question 66

spontaneous recovery

Answer 66

when the subject suddenly briefly demonstrates the CR after a period of extinction.

Question 67

generalization +example

Answer 67

when the subject demonstrates the CR with stimuli similar to the CS. ex: Little Albert being scared of a white plushy rabbit after he learned to associate fear with a white rat.

Question 68

discrimination +example

Answer 68

when the subject differentiates stimuli and does not demonstrate the CR with stimuli other than the CS. ex: If little albert were to not cry to the presence of a white fluffy cushion.

Question 69

aversion conditioning +example

Answer 69

being conditioned to have a negative CR or negative stimuli. ex: painting nails with horrible tasting materials to stop nail biting.

Question 70

higher order/second order conditioning +example

Answer 70

when the conditioned stimulus is used as an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a second CR to a new neutral stimulus. ex: the bell being paired with a flash of light so that the dog salivates every time the light is flashed.

Question 71

taste aversion

Answer 71

if we consume a food/drink and we feel nauseous, we avoid that food or drink in the future.

Question 72

habituation

Answer 72

decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus. ex: not feeling your socks.

Question 73

law of effect by which psychologist? +example?

Answer 73

Thorndike's principle which states that behaviors followed by pleasant consequences will occur more likely, and behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences will become more unlikely. ex: if a parent gives a treat for every time their child cleans their room, the child will clean the room more likely than when the parent yells at the child until they start cleaning.

Question 74

biological preparedness +example

Answer 74

the innate predisposition to associate certain stimuli with consequences more easily than other associations due to our biological needs and surviving. ex: in John Garcia and Robert Koelling's experiments, the rats associate sweet water and nausea more easily than loud noise and nausea.

Question 75

operant conditioning +example

Answer 75

learning to behave a certain way which is shaped by a reinforcer (makes the behavior more likely to recur) or a punisher (makes the behavior less likely to recur). ex: a child learning to say thank you and the parent giving them a little sweet snack every time.

Question 76

one-trial learning

Answer 76

an association is established after a single pairing of the stimulus and response.

Question 77

positive reinforcement +example

Answer 77

the addition of something pleasant to make the behavior persist. ex: giving a dog a treat to teach him tricks

Question 78

negative reinforcement +example

Answer 78

the removal of something unpleasant to make the behavior persist. ex: when a parent goes to the mall with their persisting whining child that wants to go to the mall.

Question 79

Skinner box

Answer 79

a contraption used in operant conditioning research that has a lever to press so that the animal inside can receive food.

Question 80

escape learning and avoidance learning

Answer 80

occurs when negative reinforcement is used, escape learning: when the aversive stimulus is terminated, encouraging the subject to learn the desired behavior. avoidance learning: when the negative stimulus can be avoided altogether when the desired response is reached.

Question 81

positive punishment

Answer 81

the addition of unpleasant stimuli to decrease the recurrence of a behavior

Question 82

omission training or negative punishment

Answer 82

the removal of a pleasant stimulus to decrease the recurrence of a behavior.

Question 83

shaping +example

Answer 83

when reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior. ex: first getting a pig to get closer to a coin slot, then having the pig pick up the coin, then finally having the pig put the coin in the slot.

Question 84

discriminative stimulus

Answer 84

stimulus that allows the subject to discriminate between the CS and other neutral stimuli. ex: only pressing the bar when a certain tone is sounded: tone is the DS.

Question 85

primary/unconditioned reinforcers

Answer 85

innately satisfying reinforcers that meet our basic needs, food, water, rest.

Question 86

secondary/ conditioned reinforcers +example

Answer 86

reinforcers that we have LEARNED to know as pleasant, ex: more time for a video game.

Question 87

generalized reinforcer +example?

Answer 87

reinforcer that has been paired with a variety of primary and secondary reinforcers and has the ability to reinforce for every behavior. ex: MONEY

Question 88

continuous reinforcement schedule

Answer 88

rewarding the behavior every time it occurs.

Question 89

partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule

Answer 89

rewarding the behavior only part of the time. leads to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction overtime.

Question 90

fixed ratio schedule +example?

Answer 90

provides a reinforcement after a set number of responses. ex: a restaurant giving you a free meal after the purchase of ten meals.

Question 91

variable ratio schedule +example?

Answer 91

providing a reinforcement after a variable amount of responses, for ex after 3 times, than after 5 times, than 6, etc. the average # of responses is set. ex: slot machines paying out on different number of pulls.

Question 92

fixed interval schedule +example?

Answer 92

providing the reinforcement after a fixed amount of time. ex: going to school at 7 am.

Question 93

variable interval schedule +example?

Answer 93

providing the reinforcement after a variable amount of time. sometimes after 3 min, or after 5, or 4, or 6. ex: checking for a text message when you don't know when the person you texted is going to reply

Question 94

the contiguity model of classical conditioning

Answer 94

Pavlov: the strength of the learning is positively correlated with how often the CS and the US are presented together.

Question 95

the contingency model of classical conditioning

Answer 95

Robert Rescorla: rests upon a cognitive view of classical con. states that an event must relatively predict the other for the learning to strengthen. - so when the food and the bell always appear together.

Question 96

observational learning

Answer 96

when the subject first watches a behavior and then imitates it. Albert Bandura: states that this type of learning is only amongst the members of the same species. -- experiments involved: Bobo Doll experiment: the experimental group watched adults act aggressive towards the bobo dolls and they imitated it. the control group which hadnt watched the violent behavior towards Bobo dolls did not act aggressive.

Question 97

social learning +which psychologist?

Answer 97

(related to observational learning): we can learn by observation, imitation, and modeling of others behaviors or actions. (BANDURA)

Question 98

latent learning +which psychologist? +example?

Answer 98

the type of learning that isn't explicitly demonstrated until reinforcement is used to demonstrate it. studied by Edward Tolman and his rat experiments.

Question 99

cognitive map

Answer 99

a mental representation of the maze during the Tolman rat experiments.

Question 100

abstract learning +example

Answer 100

understanding mental concepts not involving a stimulus and a response ex: pigeons could choose two pictures with the same shapes during certain studies.

Question 101

insight learning +which psychologist? +example?

Answer 101

having a sudden solution to a problem in your mind ex: suddenly knowing how to solve the math problem that you skipped on a test

Question 102

famous cognitive learning experiments: Bandura's Bobo Doll experiments Tolman's rat maze experiments Koehler's chimpanzee & banana experiments - list all - define all - state the message for each.

Answer 102

Bobo doll: the children imitated the aggressive reactions previously shown to them by adults. --- message: aggression and other behaviors can be learned through observation. tolman rat maze: rats that ran a maze repeatedly then showed dramatic improvement once a reinforcement was introduced (treat) ---message: rats learned their way around the maze, then stored the information in a cognitive map", then used these maps to reach the treats faster. Koehler chimpanzee: the chimpanzees were put into a room with bananas higher then they could reach and a few boxes. the chimpanzees would spend their time being annoyed until they figured out to stack the boxes to reach the bananas. ---message: shows how non-human animals also demonstrate insight learning.

Question 103

social influence theory

Answer 103

the idea that how people feel and act is affected by others around them.

Question 104

attribution theory + what are the two components? +examples?

Answer 104

the theory that explains someone's behavior using either situational factors or personal dispositions. dispositional attribution: a person behaves a certain way because of their traits. situational attribution: a person might behave a certain way because of situational factors, ex: when you act angry because your car broke down.

Question 105

self-fulfilling prophecy +which experiment?

Answer 105

the expectations/predictions we have of others can influence those others' behavior or "become true". +pygmalion in the classroom experiment where random students were treated like intelligent people and they actually increased their IQ scores.

Question 106

fundamental attribution error +example? + what aspect about collectivist vs individualistic cultures?

Answer 106

when you underestimate the impact of the situational factors and overestimate the impact of personal dispositions: ex: Claire gets tackled by accident by another runner at a marathon which leaves her unable to complete the marathon. she believes that the other runner did that on purpose. - psychologists now argue that collectivist cultures show less fund. attributional error than individualistic cultures because they understand the situational factors better.

Question 107

actor observer bias +example?

Answer 107

people are more likely to make situational attributions about themselves than about others. ex: if you are quiet in a class you might attribute it to the fact that it is a boring class, but your classmate might think that you are shy in general.

Question 108

false consensus effect

Answer 108

the tendency for people to overestimate the amount of people who agree with them.

Question 109

self serving bias

Answer 109

when people overestimate their impact on good outcomes and underestimate their impact on bad outcomes.

Question 110

just world phenomenon +example

Answer 110

believing that good things happen to only good people and bad things to only bad people. - ex: if somebody thinks unemployed people are just lazy.

Question 111

mere exposure effect +example

Answer 111

the more you are xposed to sth the more you will come to like it. + ex: when you go to the store and see a huge ad sign about Ruffles chips, and you see it several times so you decide to buy it and like it.

Question 112

elaboration likelihood model +what are the two types associated with it?

Answer 112

suggests that persuasion takes two forms: central route to persuasion: deeper processing as to what a product contains, benefits, etc. "LOGIC" peripheral route to persuasion: when people are persuaded more by incidental cues, ex: who the advertiser is. If it is a celebrity that advertises the product people are more likely to buy it. "EMOTIONS, ETHOS"

Question 113

cognitive dissonance theory +example +conscious/unconscious?

Answer 113

when a person's attitudes(beliefs) and behaviors contradict, causing discomfort. either the attitudes or the behaviors have to change. ex: if somebody believes alcohol is bad then starts drinking beer, they might change their attitude about alcohol. + this change happens without conscious awareness.

Question 114

foot in the door technique +example

Answer 114

suggests that when you ask for a small request and then follow up with a larger request, the second request is more likely to be accepted. ex: when you ask your friend for $5 and then $15.