Unit 1: Development Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
Define Adaptation
A
using assimilation and accomodation
to make sense of the world
2
Q
Define Assimilation
A
incorporating new experiences into existing schemas
3
Q
Define Accommodation
A
when a schema doesn’t work anymore, so you must change it to deal with an experience
4
Q
Define Equilibrium
A
when a child’s schemas make sense to them and explains everything they experience
5
Q
Define Schemas
A
A mental representation of knowledge
6
Q
Define Mindset
A
a set of beliefs we have about our ability to succeed at thing. these beliefs influence how we response to or interpret a situation.
7
Q
Define Morals
A
standards of right and wrong behaviour that can differ between cultures and situations. basically what is considered to be right or wrong
8
Q
Define Morality
A
‘proper behaviour’, how people should behave according to the principles of what’s right and wrong. and separating these factors as good and bad.
9
Q
Define Moral Development
A
how children reason about what is right or wrong, and how their understanding grows as they reach into adulthood.
10
Q
How old do you have to be to develop morality?
A
all people above the age of 10 are able to consider the factors of intention.
11
Q
Define the brain
A
the organ in your head made up of nerves that processes information and control behaviour
12
Q
Describe the development of the brain at 3-4 weeks after conception
A
a long tube develops divided into 3 distinct round sections. forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.
13
Q
Describe the development of the brain at 5 weeks after conception
A
forebrain and hindbrain split into a further 2 cavities. forebrain splits into an anterior and posterior section. the hindbrain splits in the middles and the midbrain doesn’t divide.
14
Q
Describe the development of the cerebellum
A
can be seen at 6 weeks after conception and a year after birth it triples in size.
15
Q
What is the function of the cerebellum?
A
controls physical skills which develop a lot during the time after birth as they learn to walk etc. which accounts for its growth. it is also involved in responses like fear and in functions like processing sense information.
16
Q
What is the role of the medulla oblongata?
A
it controls involuntary responses such as sneezing, breathing, heartrate and blood pressure. it connects the rest of the brain to the spinal chord.
17
Q
When is the medulla developed?
A
20 weeks after conception
18
Q
How many neural connections form every second?
A
700-1000 new neural connections
19
Q
What are neural connections?
A
links formed by messages passing from one nerve cell (neuron) to another
20
Q
What are neural connections for?
A
for fast communication between the many different parts of the brain. early connections are important for babies to get plenty of simulation.
21
Q
How does the brain size develop by 3 years old?
A
doubles in size over first year, reached 80% of its full size by 3 years old.
22
Q
What is anterior and posterior?
A
anterior: towards the front
posterior: towards the back
23
Q
Where is the medulla?
A
in the hindbrain in front of the cerebellum - connecting brain to spinal chord.
24
Q
What are involuntary responses?
A
actions that you don’t think about and happen automatically. such as sneezing or breathing.
25
What is the theory of cognitive development?
a theory created by a psychologist called Piaget who believed children go through different stages of development as they grow from birth to 12 years old.
26
What are the 4 stages of cognitive development?
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational
27
Describe the sensorimotor stage
birth to 2 years old
children use their senses and movements to explore the world, this is why they always put things in their mouth to taste, touch everything etc.
develop object permanence, and at 4 months like to repeat things a lot.
28
Describe the pre-operational stage
2 to 7 years old
children start curiosity in how they do things and start reasoning.
includes 2 stages
symbolic function stage (2-4)
includes symbolic play, egocentrism, and animism
intuitive thought stage (4-7)
start of reasoning.
they have centration.
irreversibility, conservation not achieved
29
Describe the concrete oporational stage
7 to 12 years old
children start to use rules and strategies to figure things out, using concrete objects help their understanding and thinking
conservation is developed, morality is developed, seriation developed
30
Describe the formal operational stage
12 years old +
children develop control over their thoughts: thinking 2 or more things of a person and more complex thoughts
ability to think about the future and how time changes things, and able to use hypothetical thought
31
What is object permanence and when is it developed?
the ability to know something is there even though it is out of sight, it is developed at 6 months
32
What is symbolic play?
when a child uses objects to represent other objects, ideas, and actions.
for example, playing with a cardboard box and pretending it's a car
33
What is egocentrism?
when children are only able to see the world through their own perspective
34
What is animism?
when children believe that objects are alive and can have feelings. for example, a child may believe their teddy bear has feelings too.
35
What is ireversability?
when a child can't understand that some things cannot be reversed after they are done. for example, you can't put back together a piece of toast if it were already cut
36
What is centration?
the ability to focus on only one thing when something is too complex to understand
37
What is conservation?
when someone understands that changing how something looks does not change the volume, mass, size, quantity etc.
eg. a thinner glass may look like it has more water in it but it doesn't
38
What is seriation?
being able to categorize things by size or other orders
39
What is hypothetical thought?
someone is able to infer the the consequences of an action before doing it
40
How has Piaget's practices been applied to classrooms and teachers?
childrens actions and interactions affect their thinking. children can't do specific things until they have reached the right stage.
children are egocentric so if they do something to hurt someone they aren't being naughty, they just don't understand how that affects other people.
children build their own schemas based on their own experiences so they will be different to other students.
41
Define growth mindset
believing practice and effort can improve your abilities
42
Define fixed mindset
believing your abilities are fixed and unchangeable
43
Define ability
what someone is already capable of. can be seen as fixed or as able to be improved.
44
Define effort
when you try and improve a skill using determination
45
How might children with a growth mindset behave compared to someone with a fixed mindset?
children with a growth mindset will put effort into improving their abilities.
children with a fixed mindset tend to stop trying and give up immediately. because they think they cannot change any skills they aren't born with.
46
How might teachers with a fixed mindset or growth mindset influence children's behaviour?
teachers with a fixed mindset may influence children to stop trying
teachers with a growth mindset may influence children to put effort to improve their skills
47
What did Mueller and Dweck (1998) find?
praising ability led to fixed mindsets
praising effort led to growth mindsets
48
What did Yeager and Dweck (2012) find?
1500 low achieving students performed better with a growth mindset compared to a control group which didn't
49
What are the strategies to support physical development?
- focus on movements suitable for the action they want to carry out
- practice movements enough times to build muscle memory
- use conscious effort to develop further by changing things
50
What are the strategies to improve social development?
- children can think about the consequences for their actions to stop impulsive behaviour
- children use social learning so demonstrate good examples in front of them so they can be influenced
- children can use self-regulation to stop yourself from wanting to do things you would rather do
- delay giving a reward so children have something to work for
51
What was Willingham's disagreement with Piaget?
Willingham believed that children can view other people's perspective by 18 months and not 7 years old.
Piaget then agreed and changed the stages of egocentrism and decentration to 18 months
52
What is social learning?
learning by observing and copying others
53
What is decentration?
being able to separate yourself from the world and take different views of a situation. the opposite of egocentrism.
54
What is self regulation?
limiting and controlling yourself without taking influence from others
55
What are the strategies to improve cognitive development?
- give new problems to students that are within their ability but still has a challenge and requires effort
- plan activities according to the child's stage, but consider factors apart from developments as well since all children have different understandings and abilities.
56
What is Piaget's theory of the Development of Morality?
Heteronomous Stage:
Between 5-10 years old, rules are decided by other people and are put on children. children in this stage believe rules cannot be change and if to be broken leads to punishment. This stage focuses on the consequences of actions, directed by others.
Autonomous Stage:
From 10 years old onwards, rules are decided by the individual themselves. Children know that bad consequences can still come from a good action because of intention. There are rights to change the rules if everyone agrees, people tend to become more flexible about rules to benefit others.
57
What are the levels in Kohlberg's Theory?
Level 1 - Pre Conventional (stages 1 & 2)
Level 2 - Conventional (stages 3 & 4)
Level 3 - Post Conventional (stages 5 & 6)
58
Describe Level 1 Pre-conventional Morality
about 9 years old
the child believes rules cannot be changed, the consequence of an action can either be a punishment or a reward.
basic views of what's right and wrong
stage 1: the child obeys rules in order to avoid punishment
stage 2: the child is about self-interest and has "what's in it for me" driven behaviour. meaning they only follow rules and actions if it benefits them.
59
Describe Level 2 Conventional Morality
most young people and adults
the person sees themselves as a good member of society, they point for good moral behaviour, bringing reasoning from norms.
stage 3: about being good and conforming to social rules in order to be liked
stage 4: maintaining social order by obeying authority as a duty
60
What are norms?
society's values that a person in society should follow
61
Describe Level 3 Post-conventional Morality
10% of people reach this level
the individual has their own ideas about what is right and wrong. they understand that some moral principals are universal and not just for society (eg. respect)
stage 5: laws are social contracts people enter into, different people have different laws they choose to agree to.
stage 6: understanding that there are universal principals that must be followed. moral reasoning is abstract, focuses on universal principles as to just individual morals. they go beyond the social laws to what their individual morals are.
62
What are the strengths of Dweck's Mindset Theory?
has practical applications, if teacher praise effort the theory has a positive outcome and can help society. believing that abilities can change leads to better school performance
evidence to support mindset theory: Yeager and Dweck (2012) found that adolescents could deal better with not fitting in with a growth mindset
63
What are the weaknesses of Dweck's Mindset Theory?
many studies have experiments in artificial environments that lack ecological validity (except Gunderson)
focusing too much on a child's mindset shifts attention away from lessons themselves
many studies overlook the impact of feedback and focus on only praise
64
What is working memory?
different parts for processing information coming in from our senses, including visual and sound data, and also involves a decision making part
65
What does Willingham mean by "factual knowledge precedes skill"?
knowing facts helped when building skills of problem-solving and reasoning. knowledge frees up space in our working memory to allow us to use mental skills. what someone already knows leaves them with more processing power to solve a problem.
66
What is the importance of practice and effort?
practice and effort enable us to master skills. it is important to practice things enough until they become automatic, in order to leave enough working memory for learning new things. the skill must be repeating many times and kept up in order to maintain it.
67
What is Willingham's famous quote?
"don't practice until you get it right, practice until you never get it wrong."
68
What is the importance for building knowledge?
short-term memory involves practice, rehearsing what is to be remembered. what is learned goes into the long-term memory and must be reviewed and practiced overtime to remember it. after a specific time of practice and effort it stays in the LTM and is unlikely to be forgotten.
69
What are some ways to practice and build knowledge?
quizzes and different tasks to learn the material
70
What is the importance for building skills?
problem solving and creative thinking are skills a student needs to learn. these skills use working memory, therefore need to be developed to become automatic.
71
What are the strengths of Willingham's learning theory?
practical applications in education, positively influencing a child's development
lots of theories to support (Repacholi & Gopnik 1997 found support that children aren't as egocentric as Piaget thought, Piaget himself agreed and changed it from 7 years to 18 months)
72
What are the weaknesses of Willingham's Learning Theory?
lacks emphasis on individual differences in learning (such as inherited traits like self regulation and impulsivity)
experimental evidence is valuable however lacks ecological validity since not done in realistic environments
his ideas come from many areas (eg. memory, neuropsych) therefore cannot be seen as one theory and can't be tested uniformly.
73
What is the background for Piaget and Inhelder (1956) 3 Mountains Task?
children in the pre-operational stage are egocentric. this experiment was to study children's perspectives. 3 mountains on a model, children were on different sides of the model and were asked to describe different views.
74
What were the aims of Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) 3 Mountains Task?
to see the extent to which children of different ages can view other perspectives
the overall system of putting together a number of views of what they see.
75
What is decentration?
developing the ability to view multiple perspectives
76
Describe the procedure of Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) 3 Mountains Task
1. 100 children were studied above the age of 4
2. a model was created with pasted sheets of paper
3. 10 pictures of the model were taken from different positions
4. there was a wooden doll placed around different places on the model
5. the child was shown multiple pictures of the model from different perspectives and asked to pick the one the doll could see
6. the child positions the doll so it can see that viewpoint.
77
What were the results of Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) 3 Mountains Task?
pre-operational stage: ages 4-6.5 choose their own view instead of the dolls
concrete operational stage: ages 7-9 understand the doll sees differently
ages 9-10 understand full if the doll is positioned elsewhere
78
What is the conclusion of Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) 3 Mountains Task?
children up to 7 years old are egocentric, providing evidence for Piaget's theory of cognitive development
79
What are the strengths of Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) 3 Mountains Task?
in depth qualitative data, lots of repeats and large sample size resulting in reliable data, carefully considered errors
80
What are the weaknesses of Piaget and Inhelder's (1956) 3 Mountains Task?
stages are not as different as explained
ecologically valid scenarios proved these findings wrong
children didn't really understand the task
81
What is person praise and what does it lead to?
someone praises the individual rather than what they are doing
leads to entity theory/entity motivational framework
82
What is process praise and what does it lead to?
someone praises what is being done and not the individual
leads to incremental theory/incremental motivational framework
83
What is entity theory?
a belief that someone's behaviour/ability results from a persons nature
84
What is incremental theory?
a belief that effort drives behaviour and ability, which can change
85
What is the impact of experimental evidence in Dweck's theory?
it is based in an artificial environment meaning it can measure unnatural behaviour lacking ecological validity. Gunderson's study is based in a natural setting
86
What are the impacts of praise on gender?
boys believe in incremental theory because they receive more process praise
girls get more person praise therefore believe in entity theory
87
What are the aims of Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
whether children are affected by types of parental praise given in a natural setting
whether parents give girls less process praise and more person praise compared to boys
whether parents use of process/person praise in early childhood predicts their reasoning for behaviours 5 years later
88
What was the method for Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
study followed a group of children over a long period of time. they look at parents use of praise at home from 14,26,38 months. 5 years later the children's idea of behaviour measured and relucted to the type of praise they received
89
What were the participants like in Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
29 boys 24 girls and their caretakers
53 pairs in total
64% white 17% african american 11% hispanic 8% multiracial backgrounds
90
What were the participants told to do in Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
they were told the study was about language development
asked to go about a typical day at home
caregiver to child interactions were taped in 90 minute videos
91
What happened to the children in Gunderson et al (2013)'s study once they turned 7-8 years old?
they were given 2 questionnaires to answer about what led to a persons intentions and to act morally.
92
What were the results of Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
3% of all parent comments were praise
18% of all praise was process and 16% was person
24.4% process praise for boys 10.3% for girls
93
What was the conclusion of Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
process praise leads to incremental theory
person praise has no effect
boys get more process praise then girls therefore had more incremental framework
94
What were the strengths of Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
Dweck's findings were supported in experimental and naturalistic conditions
researchers and participants didn't know focus of study so no bias
95
What were the weaknesses of Gunderson et al (2013)'s study?
ethical concerns since participants were deceived about the focus of the study
parents may show demand characteristics when observed, compromising data reliability
53 parent child pairs in Chicago isn't a representable and generalisable sample to a broader population.
96
What are the weaknesses of the morality theories?
Piaget and Kohlberg used stories that were artificial and might not
represent real thinking. There were no real
consequences in the stories from the decisions that were made.
Carol Gilligan (1977) criticised Kohlberg, saying his male-only sample
meant his theory was about male morality
97
What are nativist theories?
theories that view morality as part of human nature
98
Describe early infancy in Damon's (1999) theory of morality
childrens feelings towards others are not different towards their feelings towards themselves
this is known as global empathy
99
Describe ages 1-2 in Damon's (1999) theory of morality
children realise others are upset and this makes them feel bad but their don't know what to do about it
100
Describe early childhood in Damon's (1999) theory of morality
children learn that others have different views (egocentrism) so they can be more responsive to someone elses distress.
101
Describe ages 10-12 in Damon's (1999) theory of morality
children realise that others live in poverty/have difficulties like disabilities that they might not have themselves.
