Unit 1 - Research

Question 1

Empiricism

Answer 1

Twofold view that knowledge comes from the senses (not innate) and observation and experimentation are the basis of science.

Question 2

Nature-nurture issue

Answer 2

Controversy over the relative contributions that genes (nature) and experiences (nurture) make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Question 3

Intuition

Answer 3

Understanding without conscious reasoning.

Question 4

Hindsight Bias

Answer 4

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome including psychological research finding, that one would have foreseen it (AKA I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Question 5

Overconfidence

Answer 5

Tendency to overestimate our knowledge and/or abilities in a certain area.

Question 6

Confirmation Bias

Answer 6

Obstacle to problem solving in which people tend to search for information that validates their preconceptions.

Question 7

Peer Reviewers

Answer 7

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy.

Question 8

Theory

Answer 8

Explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

Question 9

Hypothesis

Answer 9

Testable prediction, often implied by a theory; testing the hypothesis helps scientists to test the theory.

Question 10

Falsifiable

Answer 10

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.

Question 11

Methodology

Answer 11

Details of how you will measure variables, how you will observe and measure the results, and how you will evaluate the hypothesis.

Question 12

Operational Definition

Answer 12

Precise statements of procedures/operations used to define independent and dependent variables and how the variables are measured.

Question 13

Replication

Answer 13

Process of repeating an experiment, often with different participants and in different situations, to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other people and circumstances.

Question 14

Naturalistic Observation

Answer 14

Non-experimental technique in which one observes and records behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation; does not establish cause/effect relationships between variables.

Question 15

Case Study

Answer 15

Descriptive/non-experimental strategy in which one person is studied in great depth, often with the intention of revealing universal principles; findings cannot be generalized to a larger group.

Question 16

Survey

Answer 16

Descriptive/non-experimental TOOL for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of people or a group.

Question 17

Social Desirability Bias

Answer 17

Bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a research expects or wishes.

Question 18

Self-report Bias

Answer 18

Bias when people report their behavior inaccurately.

Question 19

Meta-analysis

Answer 19

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Question 20

Demand Characteristics

Answer 20

Subtle cues interviewers may convey about their expectations which may cause interviewees to behave in ways they believe the interviewer wants them to behave.

Question 21

Positive Correlation

Answer 21

Variables move together in the same direction (time spent increases, fitness level increases); number falls between 0 and +1.

Question 22

Negative Correlation

Answer 22

Variables that have an inverse relationship (more a person practices golf, the lower his/her game score will be); number falls between 0 and -1.

Question 23

Correlation Coefficients

Answer 23

Indicate the strength between two variables; no correlation is 0.

Question 24

Scatterplot

Answer 24

Type of graph designed to display correlational data so the relationship between the two variables is visible. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship and the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation. Litter scatter indicated a high correlation.

Question 25

Illusory Correlation

Answer 25

False perception of a relationship between two events when none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Question 26

Regression toward the mean

Answer 26

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Question 27

Population

Answer 27

Consists of all the members of a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.

Question 28

Random Sample

Answer 28

One that is representative because every member of the population has an equal chance of being included; allows you to generalize findings to a larger group.

Question 29

Sampling Bias

Answer 29

An error in the sampling process that allows some members of a population to be more or less likely than others to be included in a study.

Question 30

Convenience Sampling

Answer 30

Selecting participants that are easily accessible; doesn't allow you to generalize.

Question 31

Experiment

Answer 31

Research strategy in which a researcher directly manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable); experiments therefore make it possible to establish cause-effect relationships.

Question 32

Falsifiability of a Hypothesis

Answer 32

It's possible to disprove it with observable evidence or experimental observation.

Question 33

Independent Variable

Answer 33

Factor being manipulated or tested

Question 34

Dependent Variable

Answer 34

Factor being measured; depends on the independent variable.

Question 35

Placebo

Answer 35

Inert substance or condition that is administered as a test of whether an experiment participant behaves the same as he or she would if the treatment were present.

Question 36

Placebo Effect

Answer 36

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Question 37

Single-blind study

Answer 37

Participants do not know whether they belong to the control group or experimental group but researchers gathering data do.

Question 38

Double-blind procedure

Answer 38

Control procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the research participants are aware of which condition is in effect - use to prevent experimenters' and participants' expectations from influencing the results of an experiment.

Question 39

Experimental Group

Answer 39

Experiment is one in which participants are exposed to the independent variable being studied.

Question 40

Control Group

Answer 40

Experiment is one in which the treatment of interest (or IV) is withheld so that comparison to experimental condition can be made.

Question 41

Random Assignment

Answer 41

Procedure of assigning participants to the experimental and control conditions by chance to minimize preexisting differences between the groups.

Question 42

Participant Bias or Response Bias

Answer 42

Tendency for subjects to behave in certain ways based on their perception of the experiment; can be controlled using single-blind or double-blind procedures.

Question 43

Experimenter Bias

Answer 43

Unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently in increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis; is nota a conscious act because if a researcher purposely distorts their data, that is fraud; again, reduced by double-blind procedures.

Question 44

Confounding Variable

Answer 44

Any difference between the experimental and control conditions, except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable; an experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the IV and control for confounding variables; examples; eating a big meal prior to a food experiment, suffering from a migraine during a test, temperature of the room in which the experiment is located.

Question 45

Cross-sectional Study

Answer 45

Researchers compare several groups to one another based on variables such as age, socioeconomic class, and gender resulting in less expensive and quicker study.

Question 46

Longitudinal Study

Answer 46

Researchers study individuals at several points during the life span (study a degenerative illness over many years).

Question 47

Generalizability

Answer 47

Apply what is learned from a study/research to all people.

Question 48

Internal Validation

Answer 48

Likelihood that differences in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable rather than some other factor, depends on how well the methodology controls factors other than the independent variable.

Question 49

External Validity

Answer 49

Ability to generalize the results to the larger population.

Question 50

APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Research

Answer 50

Any type of academic research must first propose the study to the ethics board or instructional review board (IRB) at the institution; guidelines for human research include: coercion, informed consent, confidentiality, lack of risk, debriefing procedures.

Question 51

APA Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research

Answer 51

Ethical psych studies using animals must meet the following requirements: have a clear specific purpose, care for and house animals in a humane way, acquire animal subjects legally, design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible.

Question 52

Animal Care and Use Committee (ACUC)

Answer 52

Committee on the IRB that weighs the risks to the animal against the benefits of the research.

Question 53

Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE)

Answer 53

Advocates for ethical use of animals in research; main goal is to provide education on responsible research with nonhuman subjects and to establish clear guidelines about what ethical and responsible use of animals in psychology research means

Question 54

Institutional Review Board

Answer 54

Meet to review any study to determine if the proposal is ethical or if it poses risks to those involved and ensures the safety of those participating in research studies and a study cannot begin until the IRB has given approval.

Question 55

Informed Consent

Answer 55

Participants in a study must give SIGNED consent indicating that they understand the components and the potential risks of the study and agree to take part. However, even with informed consent, participants are not obliged to complete the study. Called informed assent if the participant is a minor.

Question 56

Coercion

Answer 56

To force or require a participant to comply; human participants in research studies must be participating by their own free choice, not by coercion.

Question 57

Deception

Answer 57

Involves misleading participants about the nature of an experiment and its methodology and is acceptable when the researcher believes it is necessary for the efficacy of the study and the IRB agrees with the researcher's reasoning.

Question 58

Confedrates

Answer 58

Actors who are told prior to the experiment how to react.

Question 59

Debrief

Answer 59

When deception is used, the researchers must explain to the participants the deception after the study.

Question 60

Confidentiality

Answer 60

Protects participant's private information; not identify by name, information cannot be shared with anyone outside the study without permission of participants.

Question 61

Qualitative Measure

Answer 61

Non-numerical such as structured interviews or focus groups allowing you to capture complex experiences numerical analysis can't.

Question 62

Quantitative Measure

Answer 62

Numerical data gathered through surveys, correlations, or experiments such as using Likert Scales (0-5 rating).

Question 63

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 63

Techniques for organizing and describing data sets.

Question 64

Frequency Distribution

Answer 64

Organizing data to determine how often something occurs.

Question 65

Mode

Answer 65

Most frequently occurring score in distribution; the simplest measure of central tendency to determine.

Question 66

Bi-modal

Answer 66

Two modes

Question 67

Mean

Answer 67

Arithmetic average or measure of central tendency computed by adding the scores in a distribution and diving by the number of scores.

Question 68

Median

Answer 68

Measure of central tendency which is the score that falls at the 50th percentile, cutting the distribution in half.

Question 69

Range

Answer 69

Measure of variation computed as the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Question 70

Standard Deviation

Answer 70

A measure of how broadly or narrowly a set of scores or values deviate from the mean - small standard deviation means the data is tightly clustered around the mean.

Question 71

Z-score

Answer 71

Number of standard deviations from the mean (z-score of -1SD means a score is one standard deviation below the mean.)

Question 72

Variance

Answer 72

Indicates how widely spread scores are from one another and the mean.

Question 73

Statistical Significance

Answer 73

Means that an obtained result, such as the difference between the average for two samples, very likely reflects real difference rather than sampling variation or chance factors; if less than 5% chance (0.05) then the research is statistically significant and did not occur by chance.

Question 74

P-value

Answer 74

The probability of getting the experimental results; to be acceptable in psychological research and to be considered statistically significant p needs to be less than 0.05.

Question 75

Inferential Statistics

Answer 75

Statistics that can determine whether findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.

Question 76

Effect Size

Answer 76

The strength of the relationship between two variables. Larger effect size means one variable can be explained by the other.

Question 77

Normal Curve

Answer 77

Bell shaped curve that represents a distribution of scores that is normally distributed (few scores at the low end and high end of the distribution, which most scores clustered around the mean); approximately 68% of scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95% fall within two standard deviations of the mean, and most 99% of scores fall within three standard deviations of the mean.

Question 78

Negative Skew

Answer 78

Occurs when most data points are high and few data points are low; these scores pile up on the right side of the graph and the slope/Skew/tail falls on the left; mean is to the left.

Question 79

Positive Skew

Answer 79

Occurs when most data points are low and a few data points are high; the scores pile up on the left side of the graph and the slope/Skew/tail falls on the right (looks like a P (for positive) pushed on its back); mean is to the right.

Question 80

Percentile Rank

Answer 80

Percentage of scores in a distribution that a score falls above; to determine this you need to know that scores are normally distributed, the mean, and the standard deviation.