Unit 1 Vocab Flashcards
(185 cards)
1
Q
the transmission of traits from parents to their offspring
A
hereditary
2
Q
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
A
environment
3
Q
the controversy over the relative importance of contributions of genes or experience
A
nature-nurture issue
4
Q
a tendency for certain traits to be inherited
A
genetic predisposition
5
Q
the approach to psychology that focuses on the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
A
evolutionary perspective
6
Q
the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
A
natural selection
7
Q
a social and political philosophy, based loosely on Charles Darwin’s evolutionary theory and Francis Galton’s research on hereditary genius, that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding
A
euenics
8
Q
research utilizing twins. The purpose of such research is usually to assess the relative contributions of heredity and environment to some attribute
A
twin study
9
Q
research conducted among siblings, parents, or children to assess evidence for genetic links for characteristics or outcomes, often related to health or disease. The extent to which performance on a given measure varies as a function of genetic similarity is used as an indication of the heritability of that measure
A
family study
10
Q
a research design that investigates the relationships among genetic and environmental factors in the development of personality, behavior, or disorder by comparing the similarities of biological parent–child pairs with those of adoptive parent–child pairs
A
adoption studies
11
Q
the brain and spinal cord. the entire complex of neurons, axons, and supporting tissue that constitute the brain and spinal cord
A
central nervous system
12
Q
the nerves, made up of sensory and motor neurons, that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
A
peripheral nervous system
13
Q
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart)
A
autonomic nervous system
14
Q
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
A
sympathetic nervous system
15
Q
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
A
parasympathetic nervous system
16
Q
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles
A
somatic Nervous system
17
Q
the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
A
nervous system
18
Q
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. the change in electric potential that propagates along the axon of a neuron during the transmission of a nerve impulse or the contraction of a muscle
A
action potential
19
Q
a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
A
all-or-nothing
20
Q
a reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell
A
depolarization
21
Q
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
A
glial cells
22
Q
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
A
interneurons
23
Q
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
A
motor neurons
24
Q
a disease of the central nervous system characterized by scarring of the protective myelin sheath of nerves, which damages and destroys the sheath and the underlying nerve, disrupting neural transmission
A
Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
25
an autoimmune disorder in which the body produces antibodies against acetylcholine receptors, causing faulty transmission of nerve impulses at neuromuscular junctions
Myasthenia Gravis
26
the process by which a signal or other activity in a neuron is transferred to an adjacent neuron or other cell
neural transmission
27
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
neuron
28
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
reflex
29
a neural circuit that is involved in a reflex. In its simplest form, it consists of an afferent, or sensory, neuron that conducts nerve impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord, where it connects directly or via an interneuron to an efferent motor neuron that carries the impulses to an effector, that is, a muscle or gland
reflex arc
30
a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired
refractory period
31
the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is in the non excited, or resting, state
resting potential
32
a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron
reuptake
33
a substance that interferes with the reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neurons that released them. For example, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are thought to block the reabsorption of serotonin, thereby increasing the amount of serotonin available to bind to postsynaptic receptors
reuptake inhibitor
34
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
sensory neurons
35
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. the minimum stimulus intensity that triggers an action potential in a neuron
threshhold
36
the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
dendrites
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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
axon
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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
myelin sheath
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the space between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
synape
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bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
nerves
41
a major, predominantly excitatory but also inhibitory, neurotransmitter both in the central nervous system, where it plays an important role in memory formation and learning and is implicated in Alzheimer’s disease, and in the peripheral nervous system, where it mediates skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction and is implicated in myasthenia gravis and other movement disorders.
acetylene
42
As a hormone, it is secreted in large amounts when an individual is stimulated by fear, anxiety, or a similar stress-related reaction. As a neurotransmitter, it increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, relaxes bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, and produces varying effects on blood pressure. Also called epinephrine.
adrenaline
43
natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
endorphins
44
the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
endocrine system
45
plays a role as a “reward center” and in many body functions, including memory, movement, motivation, mood, attention and more. High levels are associated with schizophrenia and addiction, and low levels are associated with Parkinson’s disease and ADHD.
dopamine
46
excitatory and inhibitory chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
neurotransmitters
47
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system.
GABA
48
secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone.
ghreline
49
the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Pays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions.
glutamate
50
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.
horemones
51
a hormone that communicates to the brain the amount of body fat stored and may help to regulate food intake.
leptin
52
a hormone implicated in the initiation of sleep and in the regulation of the sleep–wake cycle.
melatonin
53
a neurotransmitter that increases alertness, arousal, and attention.
norephedrine
54
a hormone when operating during times of low stress, physiologically rewards, with feelings of well-being, those who maintain good social bonds.
oxytocin
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a neurotransmitter connected with mood, appetite, sleep. Low levels play a role in depression and anxiety.
serotonin
56
a neuropeptide that functions as a neurotransmitter in both peripheral and central nervous systems. Plays a role in the modulation of pain.
substance p
57
a state of psychological and/or physical dependence on the use of drugs or other substances, such as alcohol, or on activities or behaviors.
Addiction
58
a molecule that by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response
agonst
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a drug or other chemical agent that inhibits the action of another substance. a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response.
antagonist
60
use of alcohol marked my tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue despite problematic use and consequences
alcoholism
61
a CNS stimulant found in coffee, tea, cola, cocoa, chocolate, and certain prescribed and over-the-counter medications. Its effects include rapid breathing, increased pulse rate and blood pressure, and diminished fatigue.
caffeine
62
a drug, obtained from leaves of the coca shrub, that stimulates the central nervous system with the effects of reducing fatigue and increasing well-being, followed by a period of depression as the initial effects diminish. The drug acts by blocking the reuptake of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. The psychoactive properties of the coca plant were recognized by the Peruvian Incas before 4000 bce, and in the 1880s the possible therapeutic uses of cocaine were investigated.
cocaine
63
any of a group of drugs that, at low doses, depress the inhibitory centers of the brain. At somewhat higher doses, they depress other neural functions, slow reaction times, and lower respiration and heart rate. At still higher doses, they can induce unconsciousness, coma, and death.
depressants
64
a substance capable of producing a sensory effect (visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, or tactile) in the absence of an actual stimulus. Because they produce alterations in perception, cognition, and mood, hallucinogens are also called psychedelic drugs or psychedelics (from the Greek, meaning “mind-manifesting”).
hallucionogens
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a highly addictive opioid that is a synthetic analog of morphine and three times more potent. In many countries, including Great Britain and Canada, it is used clinically for pain management, but it is not legally available in the United States due to concerns about its potential for abuse.
heroine
66
effects include a sense of euphoria or well-being, easy laughter, perceptual distortions, impairment of concentration and short-term memory, and craving for food. Adverse effects of anxiety or panic are not uncommon, and hallucinations may occur with high doses.
maraguana
67
any of a group of compounds that include the naturally occurring opiates (e.g., morphine) and their semisynthetic derivatives (e.g., heroin); the synthetic opioid agonists (e.g., meperidine, methadone), opioid antagonists (e.g., naloxone, naltrexone). Used clinically as pain relievers, anesthetics, cough suppressants, and antidiarrheal drugs, and many are subject to abuse and dependence.
opioids
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any drug that has significant effects on psychological processes, such as thinking, perception, and emotion.
psychoactive drugs
69
any of a group of drugs that, at low to moderate doses, heighten wakefulness and alertness, diminish fatigue, and provoke feelings of energy and well-being. At higher doses, the more powerful stimulants can produce agitation, panicked excitement, hallucinations, and paranoia. Examples: cocaine, meth, caffeine, nicotine, coca leaves, betel nut, guarana, khat.
stimulants
70
a condition, resulting from persistent use of a drug, characterized by a markedly diminished effect with regular use of the same dose of the drug or by a need to increase the dose markedly over time to achieve the same desired effect.
tolerance
71
discomfort and distress that develops after cessation of prolonged, heavy consumption of a
withdrawal
72
the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. It includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and is involved in the autonomic control of salivation, respiration, heartbeat, digestion, and other so called vegetative functions.
brainstem
73
the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
celebrellum
74
the base of the brainstem; controls breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure
Medulla oblongata
75
a structure on the brain stem that lies above the medulla and regulates sleep, arousal, consciousness, and keeping the body still during sleep
pons
76
most prominently involved in arousal, alertness, and sleep–wake cycles but also controls some aspects of action and posture. a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.
Reticular activating system
77
an almond-shaped structure that is a component of the limbic system. It plays an important role in memory, emotion, perception of threat, and fear learning.
amydala
78
a seahorse-shaped part of the limbic system that is important for declarative memory and learning.
hippocampus
79
a neural structure which directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland
hypothalamus
80
donut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres and above the brainstem; associated with emotions and drives
limbic system
81
any of various areas of the brain that have been implicated in producing pleasure
reward center
82
the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
pituitary gland
83
the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
thalamus
84
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.
association areas
85
controls language expression—an area, usually in the left frontal lobe, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Broca's area
86
the layer of gray matter that covers the outside of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain and is associated with higher cognitive functions, such as language, learning, perception, and planning.
the cerebral cortex
87
the largest part of the brain, forming most of the forebrain and lying in front of and above the cerebellum. It consists of two cerebral hemispheres bridged by the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes
cerebrum
88
higher level cognitive processes of planning, decision making, problem solving, action sequencing, task assignment and organization, effortful and persistent goal pursuit, inhibition of competing impulses, flexibility in goal selection, and goal-conflict resolution, frequently associated with neural networks that include the frontal lobe, particularly the prefrontal cortex
frontal lobes
89
the most posterior (rearward) subdivision of each cerebral hemisphere, contains several visual areas that receive and process visual stimuli
Occipital lobes
90
portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head, between the frontal and occipital lobes; receives sensory input for touch and body position
parietal lobe
91
the most anterior (forward) part of the cerebral cortex of each frontal lobe in the brain. functions in attention, planning, working memory, and the expression of emotions and appropriate social behaviors; its development in humans parallels improvement in cognitive control and behavioral inhibition as an individual grows into adulthood
prefrontal cortex
92
area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.the parts of the nervous system that serve perception of touch, vibration, pain, temperature, and position
somatosensory cortex
93
one of the four main lobes of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain, concerned with motor and higher order executive functions
frontal lobe
94
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. the region of the frontal lobe of the brain responsible for the control of voluntary movement
motor cortex
95
portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
temporal lobes
96
controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
Wernicke's area
97
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area or to Wernicke’s area
aphasia
98
nonfluent conversational speech and slow, halting speech production. It is associated with injury to the frontal lobe of the brain
Broca's apasia
99
loss of the ability to comprehend sounds or speech, in particular to understand or repeat spoken language and to name objects or qualities.The condition is a result of brain damage, typically in the left posterior lateral temporal lobe, and may be associated with other disorders of communication
Wernicke's aphasia
100
the arrangement whereby each cerebral hemisphere is mainly responsible for control of movements of the opposite side of the body
contralateral control
101
a large tract of nerve fibers running across the longitudinal fissure of the brain and connecting the cerebral hemispheres: It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain
corpus collosum
102
a method of studying brain waves using an instrument that amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed at various points on the scalp
EEG
103
a form of magnetic resonance imaging used to localize areas of cognitive activation, based on the correlation between brain activity and blood property changes linked to local changes in blood flow to the brain
fMRI
104
the processes whereby some functions, such as manual control (handedness) or speech production, are controlled or influenced more by one cerebral hemisphere than the other.
hemispheric specialization
105
any damage to an area of brain tissue caused by injury, disease, surgery, tumor, stroke, or infection
lesion
106
a noninvasive diagnostic technique that uses the responses of hydrogen in tissue molecules to strong magnetic impulses to form a three-dimensional picture of body organs and tissues (e.g., the brain) with more accuracy than computed tomography.
MRI
107
the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
plasicity
108
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum connecting them
split brain research
109
a hypothesis that explains dreams as a product of cortical interpretation of random neural activity rising from the brainstem (specifically the pons).
activation synthesis
110
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle
circadian rhythm
111
our awareness of ourselves and our environment.an organism’s awareness of something either internal or external to itself
consciousness
112
during all stages of sleep, the mind and brain are working to process new memories, consolidating them into long-term storage and integrating recently acquired information with past experience.
consolidation theory
113
bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep.
hypnagogic sensations
114
difficulty in initiating or maintaining a restorative sleep, which results in fatigue
insomnia
115
a maladjustment of circadian rhythms that results from traveling through several time zones in a short span of time. Rest, work, eating, body temperature, and adrenocortical-secretion cycles may require several days to adjust to local time
jet lag
116
a disorder consisting of excessive daytime sleepiness accompanied by brief “attacks” of sleep during waking hours
narcolepsy
117
this encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep. nonrapid-eye-movement sleep: four sleep stages in which there is an absence of rapid eye movement (REM) and dreams are relatively uncommon (and usually cannot be recalled upon awakening)
NREM
118
the initial stage of NREM sleep, which is characterized by low-amplitude brain waves (4–6 Hz) of irregular frequency, a slow heart rate, and reduced muscle tension
NREM stage 1
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a stage of NREM sleep that is defined by regular bursts of waves of about 15 Hz (called sleep spindles) that progressively increase and then decrease in amplitude
NRAM stage 2
120
a stage of NREM sleep that is defined by the sleep spindles seen in Stage 2 sleep interspersed with larger amplitude delta waves (slow waves of 1–4 Hz)
NREM stage 3
121
deep sleep, a stage of NREM sleep that is defined by the presence of high-amplitude delta waves (slow waves of 1–4 Hz).
NREM stage 4
122
a sleep disorder involving motor activity during REM sleep, which typically includes a physical enactment of dream sequences
REM behavior disorder
123
the increased occurrence of REM sleep following REM-sleep deprivation. the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
REM rebound
124
a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. rapid-eye-movement sleep: the stage of sleep in which most dreaming tends to occur during which electroencephalograms show activity that resembles wakefulness (hence, it is also known as paradoxical sleep) except for inhibition of most skeletal and cranial muscles
REM
125
work scheduled during the swing shift (usually 4 p.m. to 12 a.m.) or night shift (12 a.m. to 8 a.m.). Studies show wide variations in the attitudes of employees toward shift work and their ability to adjust their circadian rhythms and adapt to changes in sleep, eating, and social patterns
shift work
126
periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. a circadian state characterized by partial or total suspension of consciousness, voluntary muscle inhibition, and relative insensitivity to stimulation
sleep
127
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
sleep apnea
128
a sleep disorder characterized by persistent incidents of complex motor activity during slow-wave NREM sleep. These episodes typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking, although the individual may also perform more complicated tasks
somnambulism
129
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind
dreams
130
regular EEG oscillations that rise and fall in amplitude in the shape of symmetrical hairpins or spindles during Stage 2 NREM sleep
sleep spindles
131
techniques for the behavioral treatment of insomnia that involve instructions given to the client to follow certain routines aimed at improving sleep patterns. Typical recommendations include using the bed only for sleeping, not napping during the day, decreasing caffeine intake or eliminating it after a certain point in the day, going to bed regularly at a set time, and keeping a sleep diary
sleep hygiene
132
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. the minimum amount of stimulation required to trigger a reaction or produce a sensation
absolute threshhold
133
the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be consistently and accurately detected on 50% of trials.
difference threshold
134
the maximum deviation of a wave of light from its median intensity. The greater the amplitude of a light wave, the brighter it appears. The greater the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder
amplitude
135
the process or experience of perceiving through the senses. the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
sensations
136
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. reduced responsiveness in a sensory receptor or sensory system caused by prolonged or repeated stimulation
sensory adaptation
137
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
Webers law
138
a condition in which stimulation of one sense generates a simultaneous sensation in another.
synesthesia
139
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
transduction
140
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. the distance between successive peaks in a wave motion of a given frequency, such as a sound wave or a wave of electromagnetic radiation. The wavelength is equal to the speed of propagation of the wave motion divided by its frequency
wavelength
141
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (rather than a constant amount).
sensory interaction
142
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness in a light wave or loudness in a sound wave, as determined by the wave’s height or amplitude.
intensity
143
the image that remains after a stimulus ends or is removed. It is usually complementary to the original stimulus in color and brightness; for example, if the stimulus was bright yellow, the negative afterimage will be dark blue.
after image
144
the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
accomodation
145
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a blocked space because no receptor cells are located there
blind spot
146
the capacity of some individuals with damage to the primary visual cortex to detect and even localize visual stimuli presented to the blind portion of the visual field
blindsight
147
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina, function in daylight or in well-lit conditions, and detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
cones
148
partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Lack of the third pigment leads to confusion between certain colors. Red–green color blindness (see deuteranopia; protanopia) is the most common, whereas the blue–green variety (see tritanopia) is relatively rare
dichromatism
149
Hyperopia is a refractive error due to an abnormally short eyeball, which causes the image of close objects to be blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies behind, rather than on, the retina.
farsightedness
150
the only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation. Retinal ganglion cells receive input from retinal bipolar cells. The axons of retinal ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
glanglion cells
151
in vision, a transparent, biconvex structure in the anterior portion of the eyeball (just behind the iris) that provides the fine, adjustable focus of the optical system
lens
152
a partial color blindness in which the eye contains only one type of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: Everything appears in various shades of a single color
monochromatism
153
myopia, a refractive error due to an abnormally long eye: The retinal image is blurred because the focal point of one or both eyes lies in front of, rather than on, the retina
nearsightedness
154
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. Best explains afterimages. Color vision at the neural level
opponent process theory
155
the second cranial nerve, which carries the axons of retinal ganglion cells and extends from the retina to the optic chiasm. the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. optic nerve
optic nerve
156
a visual receptor: a retinal rod or a retinal cone.
photoreceptors
157
the ability to perceive and recognize faces is impaired, whereas the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively unaffected.
prosopagnosia
158
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
retina
159
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond
rods
160
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. Color vision at the receptor level
trichromatic color theory
161
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
inner ear
162
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
cochlea
163
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. the number of vibrations per second, measured in units called hertz (Hz).
frequency
164
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
middle ear
165
the sense or act of hearing.
audition
166
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea
cochlear implant
167
at the bottom of the fluid filled tube in the cochlea, when sound waves pass through, it bends hair. lined with hair cells that are bent by vibrations
basilar membrane
168
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
condition deafness
169
perception of sound depends on temporal patterns with which neurons respond to sound in the cochlea. In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
frequency theory
170
the subjective attribute that permits sounds to be ordered on a musical scale. The primary theories concerning the basis for pitch perception are the place theory and the periodicity theory. a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
pitch
171
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the area where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated
place theory
172
a set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance
semicircular canals
173
this is caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves
sensorineural deafness
174
the principle that individual fibers in an auditory nerve respond to one or another stimulus in a rapid succession of rhythmic sound stimuli, whereas other fibers in the nerve respond to the second, third, or nth stimulus.
Volley theory
175
the ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources based on acoustic information. When sounds are presented through headphones, the acoustic image usually appears to originate within the head and lacks the three-dimensional quality of real sound sources.
sound localization
176
the hypothesis that the subjective experience of pain is modulated by large nerve fibers in the spinal cord that act as gates, such that pain is not the product of a simple transmission of stimulation from the skin or some internal organ to the brain.
gate Control theory
177
the sense of taste. Taste is at the threshold between the external (chemical) and internal (biochemical) worlds; it serves an organism’s nutritional needs and protects it from poisons.
gustation
178
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. the sense that provides information through receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints, enabling humans and other animals to control and coordinate their movements, including walking, talking, facial expressions, gestures, and posture
vestibular sense
179
the primary structures and processes involved in an organism’s detection of and responses to odorants
olfactory system
180
the feeling that an amputated limb is still present, often manifested as a tingling or, occasionally, painful sensation in the area of the missing limb (phantom limb pain). It is thought that the brain’s cortical representation of the limb remains intact and continues to signal the presence of the amputated limb
phantom limb
181
a chemical signal that is released outside the body by members of a species and that influences the behavior of other members of the same species - attract a mate, act as an alarm, menstrual synchrony.
pheromone
182
a person with uncommonly low gustatory thresholds and strong responses to moderate concentrations of taste stimuli. Supertasters have unusually high numbers of taste buds.
supertasters
183
Taste buds are modified elongated epithelial cells found throughout the oral cavity on hard and soft palates, tonsils, pharynx, and epiglottis, but they are most numerous on the tongue
taste receptor
184
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
kinesthesis
185
a part of the somatosensory system concerned with the perception of hotness and coldness, with receptors at various depths in the skin and other body surfaces (e.g., the tongue) that may be exposed to the environment.
warm/cold receptora
