unit 2 revision Flashcards
(110 cards)
1
Q
Attribution
A
An evaluation made about the causes of behaviour and the process of making this evaluation.
2
Q
Internal attribution
A
When we judge behaviour as being caused by something personal within an individual.
3
Q
External attribution
A
Occurs when we determine the cause of a behaviour as resulting from situational factors occurring outside the individual. Also known as situational attribution.
4
Q
Fundamental attribution error
A
Our tendency to explain other people’s behaviour in terms of internal factors, while ignoring possible external factors.
5
Q
Attitude
A
An evaluation of something, such as a person, object, event, or idea.
6
Q
The tri-component model of attitudes
A
A model which illustrates the relationship between the affective, behavioural, and cognitive components of our attitudes
7
Q
Affective component of the tri-component model
A
Our emotions and intuitive feelings towards something
8
Q
Behavioural component of the tri-component model
A
Our outward and observable actions that reflect our point of view about something
9
Q
Cognitive component of the tri-component model
A
Our thoughts and beliefs towards something
10
Q
Stereotypes
A
A widely held belief and generalisation about a group. Stereotypes correspond to the cognitive component of our attitudes.
11
Q
Cognitive dissonance
A
The psychological tension that occurs when out thoughts, feelings and/or behaviours do not align with each other.
12
Q
Prejudice
A
An often negative preconception held against people within a certain group or social category. Prejudice corresponds to the affective component of our attitudes.
13
Q
Discrimination
A
The unjust treatment of people due to their membership within a certain social category. Discrimination corresponds to the behavioural component of our attitudes.
14
Q
Stigma
A
The feeling of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that differentiates them from others.
15
Q
Factors influencing attitude formation
A
Experience, social roles and norms, classical and operant conditioning, observing people in environment
16
Q
Classical conditioning
A
A learning process involving the association of 2 different stimuli in order to evoke a similar response
17
Q
Operant conditioning
A
A learning process by which the consequences of a response affect the likelihood of the response’s recurrence in the future.
18
Q
Social learning
A
Occurs by watching others (role models) noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions, and/or then imitating these actions.
19
Q
Repeated exposure
A
Learning an attitude by being exposed to the attitude object, person, group, event over a period of time.
E.g. mere exposure effect
20
Q
Ingroups
A
A group that an individual belongs to or identifies with
21
Q
Outgroups
A
A group that an individual does not belong or identify with
22
Q
Norm
A
A standard, value or rule that outlines an appropriate behaviour or experience.
23
Q
Individualist culture
A
A culture that prioritises the needs and goals of individuals and values independence
24
Q
Collectivist culture
A
A culture that prioritises the needs and goals of groups
25
Obedience
Complying with commands which are often given by a source of authority.
26
Conformity
Adjusting one's thoughts, feelings, or behaviours to match those of others, a social group, or social situation.
27
Status
Refers to an individual's position in a group or social system
28
Power
Refers to the amount of influence that an individual can exercise over another person
29
Print media
- Displayed physically
- E.g. newspaper, magazines, brochures, posters
30
Digital media
- Displayed electronically on a device
- E.g. social media. television, video games, podcasts
31
Social connections
Refer to the network of people available to someone for support and engagement
32
Positive influences of media on individual behaviour
- increased ability to access support
- increased social connections not limited by physical proximity, enabling people to stay in touch
33
Negative influences of media on individual behaviour
- Increased pressure to stay connected and respond in real-time, leading to social fatigue
- Social connections are more shallow
- Social connections may be false
34
Positive influences of media on group behaviour
- Increased scope to form communities and mobilise large groups
E.g. protest organisation
35
Negative influences of media on group behaviour
- Increases conformity
36
Social comparison
A proposal that humans measure their self-worth in relation to the people around them, playing a significant role in mental wellbeing
37
Positive influences of social comparison on individual behaviour
- High self-esteem can occur when someone who is experiences at a skill compares themself to someone who is beginning in that skill
38
Negative influences of social comparison on individual behaviour
- Curated social media profiles can enable unrealistic social comparisons
- Editing photos
39
Positive influences of social comparison on group behaviour
- Being influenced when someone with a large following uses their platform for good
40
Negative influences of social comparison on group behaviour
- Unrealistic social comparisons to images of models in advertisements can project unrealistic beauty standards.
41
Addictive behaviours
Behaviours that are associated with a dependence upon a particular stimulus, despite negative consequence.
E.g. social media, video games
42
Information access
How easily information can be accessed by different people. Digital media has made increased information access.
43
Positives of information access
People can use digital media to access information about a topic of research or personal interest
44
Negatives of increase information access
Misinformation can also be spready quickly using online platforms
45
Independence
Being free from the control or influence of others
46
Self-determination theory
The concept that people achieve self-determination when three basic psychological needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
47
Autonomy
Refers to the need to be able to act authentically, based on individual choice and intrinsic motivation
48
Competence
Refers to the need to feel as though you have the skills required to meaningfully carry out behaviours that affect your environment
49
Relatedness
Refers to the need to feel a sense of attachment, connection to, and belonging with other people.
50
Anti-conformity
The deliberate refusal to comply with social norms or standards for thoughts, feelings, or behaviours.
51
Factors that develop anti-conformity
- the desire to promote change
- reactance
- individuation
- social support
52
Sensation
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors are activated by stimuli in the environment in order for the nervous system to receive and represent stimulus energy
53
Steps within the process of sensation
Sensory organs contain receptors that transduce sensory energy, converting it into nerve impulses that transmit information from the outside world to the brain.
Environment --> Distal stimulus --> Detection/Reception --> Proximal stimulus --> Transduction --> Transmission --> Brain --> Perception
54
Distal stimulus
The energy produced or emitted by environmental sources
55
Proximal stimulus
The environmental energy at the site of the receptors which trigger a response in them
56
Reception
Specialised receptor cells for each sense respond to a particular form of energy, thereby receiving information from external sources
57
Transduction
The process of converting energy from one form to another (environmental energy into electrochemical energy)
58
Transmission
The process of sending the information along the neural pathways to the brain
59
Perception
Perception is the process of organising and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognise and comprehend meaningful objects and events
Perceptions can differ among people
60
Steps within the process of perception
Selection --> Organisation --> Interpretation
61
Selection
The detection of particular features of a stimulus; can occur anywhere in the neural pathway, from the receptors to the brain
62
Organisation
The grouping of elements or features of a stimulus to form a whole
63
Interpretation
The process whereby the whole is given meaning; relies on the influence of mental processes which vary such as one's attitude, memory, intelligence, motivation, emotional state and personality
64
Bottom-up processing
Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Puts together the features encoded from environmental stimuli to construct the final percept
65
Top down processing
Information processing guided by higher level mental processes, such as representations in our long term memory, drawing on our experience, expectation and schemas
Form a holistic percept and then check that the details match
66
Gestalt Principles
- figure ground
- closure
- similarity
- proximity
67
Figure ground organisation
The tendency to organise the visual image by separating the important aspects of interest within the visual image (figure) such as it stands out from its surroundings/the context in which it occurs (ground)
68
Reversible (ambiguous) figures
Figures within which the figure and ground can be reversed
69
Figure qualities
- shape
- contoured
- nearer
- identified
- meaning
- remembered
70
Ground qualities
- shapeless
- continuous
- far
- not identified
- meaningless
- forgotten
71
Camouflage
Related to figure-ground organisation
When the contours are not clearly visible, it is difficult to separate the figure from the backdrop
72
Closure
The tendency to fill in any gaps to complete a figure so that it has a consistent overall form
Involves illusory or subjective contours
73
Similarity
A Gestalt principle where stimuli that are similar in size, shape, colour, or form tend to be grouped together
74
Proximity
A Gestalt principle that states that stimuli that are near each other tend to be grouped together.
75
Depth Perception
The ability to decode the information within the two dimensional retinal images in order to gain a three dimensional impression of our environment, including an idea of how far away objects are spatially located
76
Depth cues
Depth cues are physiological or environmental indications that help one establish a perception of depth and/or distance
- Primary depth cues
- Secondary depth cues
- Monocular depth cues
- Binocular depth cues
77
Primary depth cues
Internal bodily cues which collectively involve the lens, muscles and ligaments within and attached to the eye which provide information about depth and distance.
Binocular (with the exception of accommodation which is monocular)
78
Secondary depth cues ('Pictorial cues')
Features in the environment which provide information about depth and distance
Monocular
79
Monocular depth cues
Allow the judgement of distance and depth using one eye
Cues of this type occur in each eye and can operate independently of the other eye
(e.g. accommodation, height in the visual field, interposition, linear perspective, relative size, texture gradient)
80
Binocular depth cues
Require the combined use of two eyes
(e.g. convergence. retinal disparity
81
Accommodation
The process by which the eye's ciliary muscles expand or contract to adjust the shape of the lens to help focus the image of near or far objects on the retina
82
Convergence
Both eyes turning inward in order to keep objects in close range within our central, focused field of vision
83
Retinal disparity
As our eyes are 6-7cm apart, each eye receives slightly dissimilar impressions that have objects at different locations within each image. The brain combines the two images.
84
Linear perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge to a focal point as they recede into the distance (/\)
Other times, lines will appear to converge towards two focal points within the image (\/)
85
Relative size
Larger objects are perceived to be close to the observer when compared to smaller ones which are perceived to be further away
86
Interposition
An object that block out all or part of the view of another object is perceived as being closer
87
Visual angle
Closer objects produce larger retinal images as the visual angle is larger
The angle decreases as distance increases
88
Texture gradient
Aspects that are closer to the observer are perceived in more detail, whereas the texture gradually becomes more uniform, smooth and fine-grained as things stretch away into the distance
89
Height in the Visual Field
Objects which are more distant when looking over a flat expanse appear to be closer to the horizon
Objects which are closer to the observer appear to be further away from the horizon
90
Perceptual Constancies
Principles that keep our perception of environmental stimulus stable despite changes to its retinal image
- size
- shape
- brightness/ colour
- orientation
91
Size constancy
Principle that keeps our perception of the actual size of an environmental stimulus stable despite changes to the size of the image it casts on the retina
e.g. a balloon floating off into the sky does not appear to shrink
92
Shape constancy
Principle that keeps our perception of the actual shape of an environmental stimulus stable despite changes to the shape of the image it casts on the retina
93
Brightness (colour) constancy
Principle that keeps our perception of the actual colour of an environmental stimulus stable despite changes to the colour of the image it casts on the retina
e.g. the colour of your page in shadow or dim light
94
Orientation Constancy
Principle that keeps our perception of an environmental stimulus stable despite changes to it's orientation within the retinal image
e.g. tilting your head
95
Attention
Attention refers to actively focusing on particular information while simultaneously ignoring other information
96
Types of attention
- Sustained attention
- Divided attention
- Selective attention
97
Internal stimuli
Information or sensations that originate from within the body
(e.g. hunger, fatigue, temperature, pain)
98
External stimuli
Information or sensations that originate from outside the body
99
Sustained attention
Focusing on one stimulus or task across a prolonged, continuous period of time
Focuses attention on stimulus --> Maintains attention on that stimulus --> Releases sustained attention
E.g. watching a video from start to finish, completing a simple maths questions, holding a conversation for a few minutes
100
Distractions
Internal or external stimuli that draw attention away from the current task
101
Divided attention
Splitting attention across two or more stimuli at one time
e.g. Passing the time on a long drive by listening to a podcast
102
Selective attention
Exclusively focusing attention on a specific stimulus or task while ignoring all other stimuli or tasks
e.g. at a crowded party, tuning attention into conversation you are having with one person
103
Perceptual Set
- A mental predisposition or readiness to perceive one thing and not another.
- Past experience, motives, contexts, or suggestions prepare us to perceive stimuli in a certain way
104
Positive and negative side of perceptual set
PRO: Perception becomes a faster process as you are predisposed to perceive stimuli in a certain manner
CON: You may perceive what you expect to perceive in a subjective, biased or prejudicial manner rather than what is actually there
105
Prior Experience
Life experience which have significant personal meaning can provide knowledge and memories which form the basis of our interpretation of various stimuli
106
Positive and negative side of prior experience
PROS: Values, interests and attitudes formed by prior experience may enable one to perceive important information quickly
CONS: These experiences may predispose us to perceive a stimulus according to what is familiar rather than according to its actual features
107
Context
The setting within which a visual stimulus occurs that then provides a basis or framework for interpretation such that the meaning attached is consistent in comparison with its surrounds.
108
Positive and negative side of context
PROS: The setting within which a visual stimulus occurs provides us with a basis or framework for interpretation such that the meaning attached is consistent in comparison with its surroundings
CONS: Comparing the stimulus to the other elements around it may cause us to misjudge its features, thereby causing a fallible percept, especially in the case of ambiguous stimuli
109
Motivation
An increased state of arousal which activates, directs and sustains our behaviour towards a desired goal
110
Positive and negative side of motivation
PROS: An adaptive function enabling one to focus on stimuli to fulfil one's needs, interests and desires rather than attending to irrelevant stimuli
CONS: It can make us see what we want to see rather than the actuality of the stimulus
