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A2 Geography > Unit 3 - Global sytems > Flashcards

Unit 3 - Global sytems Flashcards

1
Q

What does it mean that the water cycle is a closed system?

A
  • Inputs and outputs move to and from stores within the system. None crosses the systems boundaries.
  • the amount of water in the water cycle is fixed, which means the mass balance does not change
  • water is held in stores in, on and above earth
  • flows are transfers of water between stores
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2
Q

What are the 6 major water stores?

A
  • oceanic
  • cyrosphere
  • groundwater and soil moisture
  • terrestrial surface water
  • atmosphere
  • biosphere flora and fauna
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3
Q

What is the cryosphere?

A

Any place on earth where water is frozen.

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4
Q

What is permafrost?

A

Ground permanently frozen for over 2 years

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5
Q

What is eustatic change?

A

The global change in the volume of water in the oceans

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6
Q

What is meant by ‘accumulation’?

A

The build up of snow and ice in the cyrosphere

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7
Q

What is meant by ‘ablation’?

A

Change of ice into liquid or water vapour.

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8
Q

How can sea level change change the size of water stores?

A
  • eustatic change has resulted in sea levels changing significently over geological time
  • during glacial periods more water is frozen, decreasing water in the oceans
  • climate warming increases ice sheet melting, raising sea levels
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9
Q

How has changes in cryosphere processes changed the size of water stores?

A
  • short term changes in ice accumulation and ablation occur annually due to seasonal changes in temperature
  • climatic changes, resulting in glacial and interglacial periods, cause significant changes in the cryosphere
  • human induced global warming may be permanently reducing the cryosphere by increasing ablation
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10
Q

What are the processes that control transfers in the water cycle across a range of timescales?

A
  • short term storm events increase transfers locally
  • seasonal variations in climate impact on transfer rates
    -climatic variability due to events lasting years such as El Nino Southern Oscillation impacts on precipitation levels
  • global warming impacts on precipitation levels and evaporation rates, influencing flows between the land and the atmosphere
  • climate change impacts on ablation rates, affecting transfers between the cryosphere and other parts of the system
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11
Q

What is a drainage basin?

A

An area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. The boundary of the basin is called the watershed.

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12
Q

What is the input component of a drainage basin?

A

Precipitation

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13
Q

What is precipitation?

A

Rain, snow, sleet, hail, frost: the type, amount, duration and intensity influence transfers and stores in the system

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14
Q

What are the 8 flow components of a drainage basin?

A

Throughfall
Stemflow
Infiltration
Overland flow
Throughflow
Percolation
Groundwater flow
Channel flow

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15
Q

What is throughfall?

A

Water dripping from plants to the ground; rate is influenced by leaf cover

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16
Q

What is stemflow?

A

Water flowing down stems and trunks

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17
Q

What is infiltration?

A

Water soaking into the soil; infiltration rate/capacity is the rate at which water can pass into the soil; affected by soil characters

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18
Q

What is overland flow and what are the 2 types?

A

Water flowing over the surface -
- saturation excess overland flow, the soil is saturated, so rainfall cannot infiltrate
- infiltration excess overland flow, rainfall intensity is so great that is exceeds infiltration capacity

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19
Q

What is throughflow?

A

Slow, lateral (sideways) movement downslope through the soil

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20
Q

What is percolation?

A

Downward movement from soil to underlying rock

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21
Q

What is groundwater flow?

A

Slow, downward and lateral movement through bedrock

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22
Q

What is channel flow?

A

Flow of water in streams and rivers

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23
Q

What are the 5 store components of a drainage basin?

A

Interception store
Vegetation store
Surface store
Channel store
Groundwater store

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24
Q

What is interception store?

A

Water held on leaf and plant surfaces

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25
Q

What is vegetation store?

A

Water contained in plants

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26
Q

What is surface store?

A

Water collected in depressions in the ground surface; also includes snow cover

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27
Q

\what is channel store?

A

Volume of water in a river channel

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28
Q

What is groundwater store?

A

Water stored in underground rocks, the water table marks the upper level of saturated rock

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29
Q

What are the 3 output components of a drainage basin?

A

Evaporation
Transpiration
Channel discharge to oceans

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30
Q

What is evaporation?

A

Water changing state from liquid to water vapour, it occurs from any surface store or flow

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31
Q

What is transpiration?

A

The release and evaporation of water from vegetation

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32
Q

What is meant by ‘channel discharge to oceans’?

A

The volume of water leaving a drainage basin and flowing into the sea

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33
Q

What is a river regime?

A

Annual variations in a rivers discharge, a line graph showing the changes is called a hydrograph

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34
Q

What is baseflow of a river?

A

Water entering from groundwater creates a normal minimum flow

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35
Q

What is stormflow of a river?

A

Water entering by overland flow and throughflow after precipitation creates storm flow

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36
Q

What is a simple river regime?

A

One high and one low discharge corresponding to seasonal temperature and precipitation changes

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37
Q

What is a complex river regime?

A

Several extremes of discharge in a year

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38
Q

What are the physical factors influencing river regimes?

A
  • climate (annual precipitation pattern, seasonal variations in temperature, evaporation rates)
  • vegetation
  • soil
  • geology
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39
Q

What are the human factors influencing river regimes?

A
  • land use
  • irrigation and use of water
  • dam construction, creating reservoirs to store water and even out the flow through the year
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40
Q

What is a storm hydrograph?

A

Shows a rivers response to a precipitation event

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41
Q

What are the 5 features of a storm hydrograph?

A

peak discharge
peak rainfall
lag time
rising limb
recessional (falling) limb

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42
Q

What is the peak discharge of a hydrograph?

A

Maximum rate of flow

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43
Q

What is the peak rainfall of a hydrograph?

A

The time of the maximum rainfall

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44
Q

What is the lag time of a hydrograph?

A

The period between peak rainfall and peak discharge

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45
Q

What is the rising limb of a hydrograph?

A

Part of the graph showing increase in discharge

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46
Q

What is the recessional (falling) limb of a hydrograph?

A

Shows the decreasing discharge

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47
Q

What is a flashy hydrograph?

A

Has a short lag time, high peak discharge, and steep rising and falling limbs

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48
Q

What are the 3 climatic factors affecting hydrographs?

A

Rainfall intensity and duration
Antecedent weather conditions
Temperature

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49
Q

How does rainfall intensity and duration affect hydrographs?

A

Heavy or prolonged rainfall increases overland flow, resulting in a flashy hydrograph

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50
Q

How does antecedent weather conditions affect hydrographs?

A

Previous rainfall may saturate the ground, so overland flow occurs quickly

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51
Q

How does temperature affect hydrographs?

A

Influences evapotranspiration, affecting the amount of water available to reach the channel; frozen grounds prevents infiltration shortening lag times

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52
Q

What are the 6 river catchment characteristics affecting hydrographs?

A

Basin size and shape
Drainage density
Geology and soils
Slope angle
Type and amount of vegetation
Land use

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53
Q

How does basin size and shape affect hydrographs?

A

Larger drainage basins have a longer lag time; circular basins drain more quickly

54
Q

How does drainage density affect hydrographs?

A

HIgher densities have shorter time lags and higher peak discharge

55
Q

How does geology and soils affect hydrographs?

A

Permable rocks allow more percolation and ground water, decreasing overland flow and discharge
Soil type and depth influence infiltration and throughflow, affecting overland flow and lag time

56
Q

How does slope angle affect hydrographs?

A

Steeper slopes reduce infiltration, increase overland flow and shorten lag times

57
Q

How does type and amount of vegetation affect hydrographs?

A

Influences interception, vegetation store and transpiration rate, affecting overland flow and lag times

58
Q

How does land use affect hydrographs?

A

Artificial, impermable surfaces increase overland flow, reducing lag times
Agricultural practices, such as compaction of soil by animals or machinary, or leaving land uncultivated, can influence infiltration rates
Construction of dams and reservoirs reduces peak discharge

59
Q

What 3 methods of air uplift result in precipitation?

A
  • orographic
  • frontal
  • convection
60
Q

What is orographic uplift?

A

Air is forced to rise over higher land

61
Q

What is frontal uplift?

A

When air masses of different temperatures meet, the warmer less dense air rises over the cooler air mass

62
Q

What is convection uplift?

A

Daytime heating of the ground warms air in contact with it, forcing it to rise

63
Q

How are clouds formed?

A

Rising air expands, resulting in cooling
When it cools to its dew point, water molecules condense around small particles (condensation nuclei) forming clouds

64
Q

What are the 2 theories of precipitation formation?

A

Collision coalescence process
Bergeron-Findeisen process

65
Q

What is the collision coalescence process?

A

In warm tropic areas, water condenses around large condensation nuclei
Larger droplets fall to earth, colliding with smaller droplets and absorbing them

66
Q

What is the bergeron findeisen process?

A

High altitude clouds with temperature below 0* contain ice crystals and super cooled water droplets
The ice crystals grow as water evaporates off the droplets and deposits on the ice
The ice crystals gain weight and fall as snow flakes
Snowflakes melt in warmer air layers, forming rain

67
Q

What are the 5 causes of excess runoff generation?

A

Prolonged precipitation
Intense storms
Monsoon rainfall
Snowmelt
Human causes

68
Q

How does prolonged precipitation cause excess run off generation?

A

Results in saturation excess overland flow

69
Q

How does intense storms cause excess runoff generation?

A

Result in saturation excess and infiltration excess overland flows

70
Q

How does monsoon rainfall cause excess runoff generation?

A

Similiar impact to prolonged and storm precipitation in areas of monsoon climate

71
Q

How does snowmelt cause excess runoff generation?

A

Melting of accumulation of snow and ice results in saturation excess of overland flow, especially if the ground is frozen

72
Q

What are the human causes causing excess runoff generation?

A
  • urbanisation makes the surface impermable, reducing infiltration and the soil moisture store. Drainage transports water quickly to rivers, reducing lag time, less vegetation reduces evapotranspiration, increasing runoff
  • river basin mismanagement can increase the amount of runoff. As already seen, urbanisation increases runoff. Another example of major mismanagment is large scale deforestation, removal of trees increases runoff
  • loss of flood plain storage due to chanelling and the construction of dykes for flood management results in increased runoff, creating potentially bigger floods downstream
  • staightening and canalisation of rivers speeds up the flow increasing runoff downstream
73
Q

What are the 3 types of drought?

A

Meteorological drought
Agricultural drought
Hydrological drought

74
Q

What is meteorological drought?

A

An extended period of lower than average rainfall for the region

75
Q

What is an agricultural drought?

A

Insufficient moisture to maintain crop yields

76
Q

What is hydrological drought?

A

Shortages in water supplies in surface and groundwater stores

77
Q

What are the meteorological causes of deficit in the water cycle?

A
  • seasonal precipitation variations result in soil moisture deficit
  • El Nino Oscillation (ENSO) impacts on weather patterns around every 7 years, resulting in meteorological drought in some regions
  • climate change results in long term declining precipitation and meteorological drought
78
Q

What are the human causes of water depletion?

A

Aquifer depletion - water is extracted from groundwater stores for human use faster than it is replenished, which can reduce water levels in rivers and lakes
Surface store depletion - the use of water reduces river discharge and the size of inland bodies of water

79
Q

What are the modern human uses for water?

A
  • domestic water consumption
  • irrigation of crops
  • industrial use
80
Q

How can aquifers be recharged?

A

Natural recharge - reducing extraction allows recharge by the percolation of precipitation and surface water to the aquifer
Artificial recharge - water is added to the ground surface, or pits and basins are flooded, increasing percolation rate, injection wells where water is pumped into the aquifers via a well

81
Q

What is the carbon cycle?

A

Biochemical cycle in which carbon moves between the lithosphere, oceans and the atmosphere

82
Q

What are carbon fluxes and residence time?

A

A flow between stores is also known as a flux
The residence time is the time carbon is held in a store

83
Q

What are the 5 carbon stores?

A

Lithosphere and sedimentary rocks
Oceans
Fossil fuels
Biosphere
Atmosphere

84
Q

What are the 4 carbon processes between the land and the atmosphere?

A

Fossil fuel combustion
Carbon sequestration and photosynthesis
Respiration
Decomposition

85
Q

What is a fossil fuel combustion?

A

Burning coal, oil and gas releases carbon dioxide into the environment

86
Q

What is carbon sequestration and photosynthesis?

A

Sequestration - carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and held in solid or liquid form
Photosynthesis- plants use light, water and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen

87
Q

What is respiration?

A

Living organisms produce energy through glucose and oxygen reacting together , resulting in carbon dioxide being released into the atmosphere

88
Q

What is decomposition?

A

When organic matter dies it breaks down by physical, chemical and biological processes, which releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

89
Q

What are the 2 carbon pathways between the ocean and the atmosphere?

A

Absorption by biota
Diffusion into and out of oceans

90
Q

How does absorption by biota result in a carbon pathway between the ocean and the atmosphere?

A

Phytoplankton absorbs carbon dioxide by photosynthesis, which passes through the marine food chain when the phytoplankton is eaten. Some carbon end ups in sediments when dead organisms settle on the seabed.

91
Q

How does carbon diffuse in and out of oceans?

A

Where the ocean is in contact with the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is absorbed by the water
Cold water sinking transfers the carbon to the deep ocean. Water moving to the surface and warming loses carbon dioxide to the atmosphere

92
Q

What are the 4 carbon pathways between the land and oceans?

A

Weathering
River transport and indirect movement by the water cycle
Carbon sequestration
Earth movements

93
Q

How does weathering act as a carbon pathway?

A

Particles of rock are carried to the oceans and deposited. The chemical weathering process of carbonation dissolves the calcium carbonate in rocks, changing minerals containing lime into soluable bicarbonates that are carried by water to the oceans. There it is used by organisms to create shells, which forms deposits when the organisms die, eventually creating a rock carbon pool storing carbon for millions of years

94
Q

How does river transport act as a carbon pathway?

A

Channel flow, through flow and groundwater flow move dissolved calcium carbonate into oceans

95
Q

How does carbon sequestration act as a carbon pathway?

A

Deposited sediments build up over time, forming new carbon pools of sedimentary rocks

96
Q

How does earth movements act as a carbon pathway?

A

Sediments are uplifted above sea level, where the weathering process starts again

97
Q

What is a biome?

A

A major community of plants and animals adapted to the characteristics of the environment, especially climate

98
Q

What is Net Primary Productivity?

A

NPP is the dry weight of biomass added per unit area per year

99
Q

Where can carbon be stored in biomes?

A
  • the biomass above and below ground
  • dead organic matter on the surface (leaf litter)
  • the soil
100
Q

What are the 4 factors influencing carbon storage?

A

Temperature
Precipitation
Light
Influence on the carbon stores

101
Q

Compare the temperature in a tropical rainforest and temperate grassland.

A

Tropical rainforest - average annual temperature is 25/30, minimal seasonal variation
Temperate grassland - high temperature range during the year; +40* to -30* are possible

102
Q

Compare the precipitation in a tropical rainforest and temperate grassland.

A

TR - high average annual rainfall, over 2000mm, no dry season; convectional rainfall most days
TG - low average annual rainfall, 500mm or less, spread throughout the year; snow in winter

103
Q

Compare the light in a tropical rainforest and temperate grassland.

A

TR - suns rays concentrated; little seasonal variation
TG - seasonal variation in solar radiation

104
Q

Compare the influence on the carbon stores in a tropical rainforrest and temperate grassland.

A

TR - year round plant growth and high levels of biomass, atmospheric carbon sequestration is high all year, decomposition is rapid, returning carbon quickly to the soil, high rainfall leaches the soil removing carbon
TG - atmospheric carbon sequestration varies with seasonal plant growth, humid conditions in autumn allow rapid decomposition and return of carbon to the soil, lower rainfall prevents leaching, allowing a larger soil carbon pool

105
Q

What human acitivities can cause changes in the size of carbon stores due to human activity?

A

Deforestation
Afforestation
Agricultural acitvity

106
Q

How does deforestation affect the size of carbon stores?

A
  • removes biomass carbon store
  • crops replacing trees have less biomass, reducing store size
  • decomposition is reduced, lessening input to the soil store
  • unprotected soil is vulnerable to erosion, reducing soil store capacity
  • burning biomass increases carbon dioxide transfer to the atmosphere
107
Q

How does afforestation affect the size of carbon stores?

A
  • increases carbon sequestration and biomass store
  • reduces soil erosion, maintaining the soil pool
108
Q

How does agricultural activity affect the size of carbon stores?

A
  • clearing areas for agriculture reduces carbon storage
  • soil degradation from poor practice causes soil erosion, reducing storage capacity
  • harvesting removes biomass store
  • over irrigation leaches soil, removing carbon
  • fertiliser and manure increase carbon in the soil store
  • machinary increases carbon dioxide emissions
109
Q

What is meant by ‘anaerobic’ conditions?

A

occur in areas with little or no oxygen, such as water logged soils

110
Q

What is peat?

A

Accumulation of partly decomposed organic matter, forming a deposit on boggy, acidic ground. It forms in low relief areas at both high and low altitudes (the former due to high orographic precipitation; the latter due to soil water movements)

111
Q

How is peat formed?

A
  • dead wetland plants do not fully decay in wet, anaerobic conditions, which prevent bacteria from decomposing dead material, allowing it accumulate
  • organic matter is compressed into a peat layer that can be many metres thick
  • accumulation is 1mm/yr, many bogs are thousands of years old
  • peatlands globally store double the amount of carbon stored in forests
  • the organic matter is 50% carbon
  • UK peatlands hold the equivalent of 3 years of UK carbon emissions
112
Q

What is peat burning and drainage?

A

Burning - peat is dried and used as fuel in some rural areas and power sections. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere store
Drainage - allows use of peatlands for agriculture, increases the decomposition rate, releasing more carbon dioxide. it increases flow of carbon to rivers. Drained areas may be afforested, changing the biomass carbon store

113
Q

How is peatland restored?

A

Blocking drainage channels - increases infiltration and raises the water table, increasing water logging and anaerobic conditions
Creating berms - prevents drainage
Clearing invasive vegetation and re-establishing wetlands plants
Adopting the ‘peatland code’ - encourages investment in restoration of UK peatlands

114
Q

Why have carbon emissions almost doubled since 1750?

A
  • increasing fossil fuel use resulting from population growth and increasing economic growth
  • deforestation (carbon dioxide)
  • increased livestock (methane)
  • decomposition from increasing landfill (methane)
115
Q

What is the energy budget?

A

The balance between energy received from the sun and energy radiated back into space

116
Q

What is the greenhouse effect?

A
  • 70% of solar energy reaching earth is re-radiated back as long wave radiation, much of this is absorbed by the atmosphere
  • increasing carbon dioxide and methane in the atmospheric store retains more heat, creating the greenhouse effect
  • increasing temperature raises water vapour levels, which further increases temperature
117
Q

How does increases in carbon stores affect precipitation and extreme weather?

A
  • higher temperatures increase evaporation, potentially increasing precipitation
  • increasing temperatures could lead to more heavy convectional rainfall
  • in europe, precipitation may become more seasonal
  • evidence suggests an increase in extreme precipitation events, heat waves and droughts, wetter regions may experience increased precipitation
  • hurricanes and tornados could increase in intensity
  • the IPCC has projected that global surface temperatures will rise by more than 1.5* by the end of the 21st century, causing the global water cycle to change, with increasing differences between wet and dry regions
118
Q

How does increases in carbon store affect river discharge?

A
  • intense rainfall causes infiltration excess overland flow, rapidly increasing discharge and flooding potential
  • the river regime adjusts to precipitation changes
119
Q

How does increases in carbon store affect sea levels?

A
  • warmer climate increases ice sheet melting, producing eustatic sea level rise
  • warming of oceans expands the volume of water
  • sea level is rising by 3.5mm/yr
120
Q

How does increases in carbon stores affect acidification of the oceans?

A
  • increase in atmospheric carbon allows more carbon to diffuse into the oceans, creating carbonic acid
  • shell building animals have thinner shells
121
Q

What are the links between the water and carbon cycles at the local scale?

A
  • the cycles link where the carbon is transported (dissolved or as sediment) in water
  • changing biomass store impacts on movement in the water cycle (eg deforestation)
  • irrigation alters water cycle flows and NPP; influencing carbon sequestration
  • overgrazing and land degration allow soil erosion , lowering infiltration rates and soil moisture stores, meaning lower carbon sequestration and storage
122
Q

What is steady-state equilibrium?

A

Long term average state of balance, despite changes occuring within it

123
Q

What is positive feeback?

A

The initial change causes further damage

124
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

The change is reduced, restoring equilibrium

125
Q

Give positive and negative feedback for increased carbon in the cryosphere.

A

Increased temperatures, sea ice and ice caps melt, land and sea have lower albedo and absorb more heat
+ atmospheric temperatures rise, melting more ice
- increased evaporation and cloud cover reflect solar energy, sea temperature drops, cooling air in contact with it and decreases melting

126
Q

Give positive and negative feedback for increased carbon in terrestrial settings.

A

Global temperatures rise
+ warming tundra areas, increasing decomposition, increasing co2 in the atmosphere raising temperatures
- coniferous forest biome migrates northwards and expands, biomass co2 store expands

127
Q

What is marine carbon feedback?

A
  • warmer oceans releasing more carbon dioxide contribute further to climate warming
  • acidification impacts on the health of marine ecosystems, which reduces carbon sequestration and can impact on the biological ocean pump
128
Q

What is methane feedback?

A
  • large amounts of methane are stored in permafrost. This is released when climate change causes melting
  • increased methane raises the atmospheric temperature, melting more permafrost
  • the impact could take earths climate past its threshold point
129
Q

What are the implications of feedback within and between the two systems for life on earth?

A
  • climate change impacts on vegetation patterns, influencing food production
  • melting ice caps cause eustatic sea-level change, leading to the flooding of low-lying coastal areas, where major cities are located
  • reduction in ice reduces annual meltwater supply, which decreases water supplies for some major cities
  • extreme weather events cause more damage and loss of life
  • climate change causes diseases to spread to new areas
  • ocean temperature changes affect circulation patterns, thereby influencing climates
  • new areas become suitable for cultivation
130
Q
A

A2 Geography (4 decks)

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