Unit 6 - Energy Challenges and Dilemmas

Question 1

What does the exploitation of non renewable resources lead to? Name some non-renewable sources.

Answer 1

The exploitation of non-renewable resources leads to their exhaustion because their rate of formation is very slow. Sources include hydrocarbons (the fossil fuels) and uranium ore which is required to generate nuclear power.

Question 2

What are renewable resources of energy? What 2 categories can they be divided into?

Answer 2

Renewable energy resources can be consumed in any given time period, provided current use does not exceed net renewable rates during the same period.
Renewable sources include wind, tidal power, and biomass.
Renewable resources can be subdivided into -
- Critical sources, including biomass (which requires management to maintain sustainable use)
- Noncritical sources, such as tides, waves, wind, running water and sunshine

Question 3

What are energy reserves?

Answer 3

A reserve is the proportion of a resource that can be exploited under current economic conditions, with available technology.

Question 4

What are recoverable reserves?

Answer 4

Recoverable (proved) reserves refer to the amount of an energy resource likely to be extracted for commercial use that is economically and technologically viable for extraction

Question 5

What are speculative reserves?

Answer 5

Speculative reserves are stocks and deposits that are currently not economically viable, or have not yet been explored.

Question 6

What are primary energy resources?

Answer 6

Primary energy resources are raw materials that are used in their natural form to produce power, such as coal, wood and sunlight.

Question 7

What are secondary energy resources?

Answer 7

Secondary energy resources involve converting a primary energy source into a new form, such as coal into electricity.

Question 8

How are fossil fuels stocks and reserves distributed?
Where are they likely to be more concentrated in the future?

Answer 8

Fossil fuel stocks and reserves are distributed unevenly. Deposits of oil, gas and coal are a coincidence of geological history and international boundaries.
Oil and gas supplies are dwindling in the North Sea for the UKs stock.
Remaining oil and gas will be increasingly concentrated in the Middle East, North America and the Russian Federation over the next 30 years.

Question 9

Describe coal as a fossil fuel and what countries have it in the most abundance?

Answer 9

Coal is the most widely distributed and abundant fossil fuel in the world. By region, Asia Pacific holds the most proved reserves, split between Australia, China and India.
The US remains the largest single reserve holder.

Question 10

Describe natural gas as a fossil fuel and what countries have it in most abundance?

Answer 10

Natural gas provides a source of relatively clean and cheap energy. The largest reserves are concentrated in the Russian federation, and in Iran and Qatar in the middle east.
The USA has been the worlds biggest producer of natural gas since 2010.

Question 11

What countries have the greatest abundance of oil?

Answer 11

Although the USA is now the worlds biggest oil producer, the greatest concentration of recoverable reserves are found in Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Canada and Iran

Question 12

What is hydraulic fracturing (fracking)?

Answer 12

A technique designed to recover gas from shale rock reserves found 1000-4000m below the surface. It involves drilling a borehole into the Earth and then injecting a high pressure mixture of water and chemicals to fracture the rock, which releases the gas and allows it to flow into the borehole.

Question 13

How have the US managed a sudden increase in oil and gas production?

Answer 13

Recent increases in US oil and gas production are due to new drilling techniques, such as horizontal drilling and fracking, which have unlocked large quantities of oil and gas from shale rock, especially in Texas and North Dakota.

Question 14

How can tar sands be a fossil fuel?

Answer 14

Tar sands are an uncoventional fossil fuel source, a combination of clay, sand, water and bitumen( a heavy black oil).
Tar sands can be mined and processed to extract the oil-rich bitumen, which is then refined into oil. Much of the worlds oil (more than 2 trillions barrels) is in the form of tar sands, although it is not all recoverable. The largest deposits are found in Canada and Venezuela.

Question 15

How is deepwater oil as a fossil fuel?

Answer 15

Deepwater oil, found well offshore and at considerable oceanic depths, is also classified as an uncoventional fossil fuel because of the developement of complex of technology to access it.
Brazils deepwater oil came onstream in 2009 from oil and gas fields located more than 200km offshore.
Rigs drill more than 2000m below the sea surface and many more thousands of metres below the sea bed.
Deepwater oil has its risks, rigs are often isolated at sea, the fuel is extremely flammable, and extreme weather events are likely.

Question 16

What are the renewable alternatives to conventional fossil fuels?

Answer 16

Nuclear, solar, ocean, wind, biomass, hydrological and geothermal energy.

Question 17

What are the 4 main physical factors determining the supply of energy?

Answer 17

• geological factors
• climatic factors
• relief factors
• locations with favorable conditions for sustainable energy generation

Question 18

What are the geological factors determining the supply of energy?

Answer 18

• fossil fuel are formed over geological time from the decayed remains of animals and plants
• they are concentrated in specific locations where geological conditions have created oil and gas traps, and the formation of deltaic swamps allowed coal to be formed
• geological factors also influence the location of active areas for geothermal energy (case study - 87% of Icelands demand for hot water and heat comes from geothermal energy)
• geology can also be an important indirect factor, fore example, large nuclear power stations are best located on geologically and seismically stable foundations

Question 19

How do climatic factors determine the supply of energy?

Answer 19

Certain forms of renewable energy are constrained by climatic factors.
Solar power requires high insolation rates; wind power relies on high, constant wind speeds chracteristic of areas affected by westernly wind belts; and hydropower is usually linked to areas of high precipitation.

Question 20

How do relief factors determine supply of energy?

Answer 20

Relief is an important consideration for generation of hydropower. The deep, narrow valleys of the west slopes of the sierra nevada in california provide sites for dams and reservoirs, for example at shasta in the Upper Sacramento River Basin. Relief is also important for providing a ‘head’ of water, which is stored and then released to drive turbines and generate hydropower.

Question 21

How do locations with favourable conditions determine energy generation?

Answer 21

Certain locations provide favorable conditions for sustainable energy generation from waves, tides (tidal power is restricted to a few estruaries wit ha very large tidal range, such as the river severn) and biofuels.

Question 22

What is energy demand?

Answer 22

The need or desire for energy, for an industrial or personal use.

Question 23

What is meant by ‘energy consumption’?

Answer 23

The availability and use of energy.

Question 24

What is ‘NIC’?

Answer 24

The acronym for Newly Industrialised Country

Question 25

What is ‘BRICS’

Answer 25

The acronym for the 5 major emerging economies, Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa

Question 26

What is ‘MINT’

Answer 26

The acronym for the emerging economies of Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey

Question 27

Why has energy demand increased by tenfold in the 20th century?

Answer 27

Combination of population growth, economic development and increased living standards, particularly in the NICs, BRICs, MINTs and middle eastern states.
However energy demand within developed economies as europe North America and Japanis predicted to stablise, or in some cases decrease.
By the 2030, India is predicted to emerge as the worlds largest growth market for energy, with africa playing an increasingly important role in driving energy demand.

Question 28

What are the economic factors influencing the demand for energy?

Answer 28

• there is a strong positive correlation between GNI per capita and energy usage, this is particularly the case for economies of NICS, BRICS and MINT where energy for manufacturing is important driver of growth of about 10% per year.
  -Industries such as steel, chemicals and plastics depend on energy for both heating and cooling
• growing international trade has led to the transport of goods by air, sea and land

Question 29

How do demographic and social factors influence the demand for energy?

Answer 29

• as people acquire more wealth and middle class expands in countries like India and China, there is growing demand for appliances for cooking, air conditioning and lighting, cars and other vehicles
• global population continues to grow with a higher proportion of people living in cities, which use more energy than rural areas
• the usa uses as much electricity to keep buildings cool as the whole of africa uses for everything
• 60% of growth in expected energy consumption is directly related to urban scrawl.

Question 30

What is ‘urban sprawl’?

Answer 30

The spread of population away from central urban areas into low density, often car dependent communities in a process called suburbanisation

Question 31

What are the technological factors influencing the demand for energy?

Answer 31

• for many of the economic and social reasons above, technology has produced equiptment that needs energy
• the most rapidly growing area of demand is for electricity to support the massive servers belonging to organisations such as Microsoft and other ‘cloud’ technology
• servers need electricity to run and to be kept cool (microsoft recently located one of its data centres in the North Sea near the Orkney Islands)
• the number of electronic devices in the world increases daily

Question 32

What is created to allow energy transfers between producers and consumers?

Answer 32

Energy pathways have been created.
-Transfers of oil are considerable
- Gas is transferred either directly through pipelines (eg Russia to Europe) or converted into a liquid form (LNG) and moved by tankers ( eg from the Middle East)
-There is a plan for China to build a pipeline to bring natural gas from Iran to Pakistan. This project is politically contentious due to terrrorism and instability in Pakistan and strained US-Iran relations.

Question 33

Who regulates oil storage?
Why has there been a recent drive for storage?

Answer 33

The Global Oil and Gas Storage Market regulates storage of crude oil and natural gas. One of the major drivers for storage was the recent (2015-2017) drop in oil prices, because a reduction in supply of oil increases its price.
Oil is also stored for strategic reasons, usually in underground salt caverns.

Question 34

Where is oil storage concentrated globally?

Answer 34

• 7/8 billion barrels of oil is concentrated in global trading hubs such as singapore, new york and rotterdam
• the usa has the largest strategic oil resres in the world
• natural gas storage underground is more complex, but is used to meet excessive demand such as during extreme winter weather conditions

Question 35

What are the 3 compents oil and gas industries are divided into?

Answer 35

Upstream (exploration and production)
Midstream (storing, marketing and transporting)
Downstream (refining, distribution and retailing)

Question 36

What does it mean that many oil and gas companies are state-owned?

Answer 36

Most state owned companies spearhead upstream exploration and production.
As oil has been discovered in non-OPEC countries, such as within south-america and africa, government influences has increased.
Some, such as russia, totally control foreign MNCs; others, such as Equatorial Guineas state owned oil company GEPetrol, are corrupt and have a negative influence on oil development

Question 37

What does OPEC do?

Answer 37

THe Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is responsible for 40% of the worlds oil production and owns over 80% of the worlds proven oil reserves, the bulk of which are in the middle east.
The organisation was founded in Baghdad in 1960, there are currently 14 member countries, including Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Venzuela and Nigeria. As a cartel, the aim of OPEC is to coordinate and unify the policies of its member countries and ensure the stabililisation of oil markets to secure and efficient, economic and regular supply to consumers, a steady income to producers and a fair return on capital for those investing in the oil industry.

Question 38

What are the environmental problems associated with the extraction of fossil fuels?

Answer 38

• underground coal mines leads to surface subsidence and produce toxic waste and water
• opencast pits scar the landscape and although legislation may require restoration of sites, the new ecosystems are of low quality
• oil infrastructure from large oil fields visually pollutes a large area
• oil spills at production sites are ecologically distasterous
• natural gas is generally seen as the cleanest fossil fuels in greenhouse gas terms, but flareoff as a waste product of oilfields causes major environmental problems
• unconventional sources of oil such as tar sands and shale gas may lead to water contamination, the threat of earthquakes are environmental degradation
• biofuels production has been associated with an increased risk of deforestation

Question 39

How has the transport of energy sources resulted in environmental damage?

Answer 39

The transport of energy, particularly along pipelines and tanker routes has resulted in oil spills with disasterous consequences for the environment, one of the well-known example was the exxon valdez oil spill in Alaska, 1989
3 decades later, oil can still be found on beaches and the herring fishing industry has yet to recover

Question 40

How has the burning of fossil fuels to generate energy resulted in environmental damage?

Answer 40

The burning of fossil fuels to generate energy has led to an increase in carbon output, contributing to climate change
- coal is the most polluting source of energy, leading to acid rain and smog
- wind farms are unsightly and lead to bird deaths
- hydropower results in drowning vegetation, which produces methane
- nuclear power generation is associated with evironmental risks, as demonstrated by Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) nuclear distasters

Question 41

What are the political problems associated with the extraction and transport of fossil fuels?

Answer 41

• particularly with unstable suppliers (Libya, Iraq, Iran) and volatile pathways (Russia to the UK travelling through Ukraine)
• political instability in areas where oil and gas resources are concentrated, such as libya and crimea creates challenges for managing the transfer, storage and pricing of oil and gas
• public protests, such as anti-fracking campaigns have delayed plans for the extraction of shale gas in the UK, with planning permission granted only recently

Question 42

What are the technological problems associated with energy?

Answer 42

The more electrical energy supplied by renewables, the more unstable national grids become because some sources, such as wind and solar, only produce electricity intermittently. As more renewables come online it becomes more difficult to mange fluctuations in the grid
- the technnology for large scale energy generation from the ocean is underdeveloped
- carbon capture technology is unproven and complex
- in terms of low technology, fuelwood is still a major source of heating and cooking energy in developing countries (wood burning in confined domestic spaces is one the greatest sources of ill health)

Question 43

What are the economic problems associated with energy?

Answer 43

• fossil fuels are finite, and most regions depend on them for economic stability
• radical changes to the renewables industry are required to compete on the scale necessary to displace coal, oil and natural gas
• alternative forms of energy need massive investment in research and development and almost all forms are expensive to build
• construction costs for a new generation nuclear powerplant at Hinkely Point in Somerset are estimated to be around £20 billion
• most of the oceans energy potential is underdeveloped, so costs are high
• hydropower is one of the most established forms of renewable energy, although it generates a cheap form of energy compared with other renewables, the intitial cost of infrastructure can be high (the 3 gorges dam for example required US$25 billion)

Question 44

How is sustainable energy microgeneration developed at a local scale?

Answer 44

Due to the limited economic and infrastructural resources in many developing countries, the extension of national grids is taking place at a very slow rate.
Microgeneration is therefore increasing meeting the energy requirements of areas far from national grids.
In the drought-stricken Kenyan region of Turkana, Practical Action has installed solar panels that power water drawing pump for up to 12 hours a day.

Question 45

What is meant by the term ‘microgeneration’?

Answer 45

refers to small scale systems that generate electricity and or heat for domestic dwellings and small businesses

Question 46

What is meant by the term ‘energy mixes’?

Answer 46

Refers to the combination of energy sources used to meet a country’s energy demand. The exact mix varies from country to country, according to energy availability, the security of supplies, national and international legislation and sociocultural preferences

Question 47

How is the energy mix of different countries developed at a national scale?

Answer 47

As a country develops and energy demand increases, its energy mix will change. This can be demonstrated using a model of energy transition. In rural areas of LICS energy consumption is low and based on burning fuelwood and other biomass.
As economies develop, increasing manufacturing (as in China in its open door policy), rapid urbanisation and rising living standards lead to growing energy demand and a broadening of the energy mix.
Advanced economies dominated by tertiary and quaternary activities increasingly depend on secondary energy supplies, such as electricity, generated from a wide mix of fuels.

Question 48

Why is Swedens economy very energy intensive?
What are Swedens aims for the future?

Answer 48

Swedens economy is very intensive due to its broad manufacturing base and high living standards. Sweden has one of the lowest carbon economies of all OECD countries; 92% of its electricity is generated from renewables, predominantly hydropower and biomass.
Greater efficiency has reduced the demand per capita and lowered costs (in 2000 usage of electricity was 15.7mWh per capita, falling to 13.5mWh per capita by 2014)
Sweden aims to achieve a fossil-fuel-independent fleet by 2020. However, there are concerns about disposal of nuclear waste and the need to adapt clean energy technologies for its industrial sector.

Question 49

Describe India’s energy consumption.

Answer 49

Indias energy consumption grew by over 300% between 1973 and 2005. The contribution of fuelwood/biomass to its energy supply has declined and India has embarked on a programme of developing renewables, especially solar, wind and hydropower, as well as a nuclear programme.
It lacks fossil fuel resources, except for coal.

Question 50

Describe Botswanas energy consumption.

Answer 50

Botswana’s energy consumption is growing from a low base. Traditionally fuelwood was the main source of energy.
Due to its semi-arid climate, low wind speeds (high pressure dominates) and landlocked location, the greatest potential is from solar power in the form of renewable microgeneration projects that can power rural communities. Technology transfer and aid programmes are important in supporting these projects.
With reserves of 200 billion tonnes, coal is another important resource.

Question 51

What are the economic and political factors affecting world energy prices and mix?

Answer 51

• over-dependency on fossil fuels by many countries
• volatile oil prices due to geopolitical conflicts
  -developing economies and rapid industrialisation of BRICS and MINT
• nuclear plant safety and cost effective nature

Question 52

Describe the history of why oil prices are particularly volatile?

Answer 52

• they quadruples during the oil crisis of 1973-4 following the Arab-Israeli ware, when OPEC cut oil supplies dramatically
• another crisis in 1979, when a Shia Muslim theocracy overthrew the Shah of Iran
• this is followed by the Iran-Iraq qar and the 2 gulf wars in Kuwait (1991) and iraq (2003-10)
• the effect of these major crisis was a sudden increase in oil price and in the case of Iranian Revolution, the start of a rise in non-OPEC production and a decline in OPEC production
• instability in the middle east and the increasing production of oil from shale (particularly in the US), continues to effect oil prices

Question 53

How is Chinas energy mix changing?

Answer 53

China is the worlds leading consumer of fossil fuels, although its economy and energy mix are changing from heavy industry fuelled by coal to a service based economy with a more varied energy mix
- high levels of air pollution in cities have been the catalyst for Chinas ambition for a cleaner energy mix. China now accounts for 60 percent of global solar cell manufacturing capacity

Question 54

How did Japans nuclear issues affect global energy ideologies?

Answer 54

Japans fukushima nuclear plant meltdown, caused by an earthquake generated tsunami in 2011 prompted many countries to re-evaluate their energy policies
Fukushima has a particularly drastic effect on policy in Germany, where there are plans to close all the countries nuclear reactors by 2022.
France remains pro-nuclear but plans to reduce its nuclear share in order to diversify the energy portfolio.

Question 55

What are HICS?

Answer 55

High income countries
The world bank classifies countries into 4 categories, low income countries (LIC), lower middle-income countries (LMICs), upper middle-income countries (UMICS) and HICS

Question 56

How can HICs reduce their demand for energy?

Answer 56

HICs can reduce their demand for energy through the installation of smart metres, which show people how much energy they are using, encouraging them to change their usage patterns
- walking or cycling instead of using a car is a direct reduction
- providing high quality, affordable public transport to cut car usage (eg bus rapid transport systems BRT) such as those used in Bogota, Columbia
- congestion charging (London)
- procurement of low-carbon vehicles, such as hydrogen powered buses or electric cars (eg Reykjavik)
- modern telecommunications can make travelling to attend meetings redundant
- for LICS, reducing energy demand is more problematic because most people in LICS use less energy anyway

Question 57

How can greater efficiency cause carbon emission stability?

Answer 57

Research in China concluded that, from Shanghai southwards, light- coloured roofs reduce the need for air conditioning by reflecting more sunlight, lowering annual energy usage and costs as well as annual emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide.
As china takes steps to improve its air quality there will be more benefits from cooler, lighter surfaces because more sunlight will strike buildings and lighter surfaces reflect more sunlight, reducing the need for air conditioning.

Question 58

What is the ‘green mark’ programme in Singapore?

Answer 58

Singapore aim to have 80% of its buildings achieving a green mark standard by 2020. In housing development in the Punggol area of the city the buildings face towards the wind and away from the sun, natural ventilation is favored over air-conditioning, rooftops collect rainwater and protect against the sun, and plants insulate against the heat.

Question 59

How can carbon capture act as a clean technology to aid the use of fossil fuels?

Answer 59

As coal is an abundant and cheap energy source, one alternative is to capture the Co2 released by burning it (for oil or gas) and storing and burying it, for example underground.
However, carbon capture is expensive because of the complex technology involved and the success of trapping carbon underground indefinitely is not yet proven.

Question 60

What is carbon sequestration?

Answer 60

Carbon sequestration is natural capture and storage of co2 from the atmosphere by physical or biological processes such as photosynthesis. Gasification involves removing co2 from natural gas, either at the point of production or at energy facilities from which gas is distributed

Question 61

What are hydrogen fuel cells?

Answer 61

Hydrogen fuel cells are a promising technology for use as a power source for electric vehicles.
Hydrogen does not occur naturally as a gas, because it is always combined with other elements.
Hydrogen is high in energy, and burning hydrogen produces almost no pollution.
A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water.
Fuel cells are often compared to batteries, both convert the energy produced by a chemical reaction into usable electric power.

Question 62

What is wind energy?

Answer 62

Wind energy is directly related to solar activity which causes differences and therefore atmospheric pressure, generating winds.
Wind energy has great potential where winds are strong and particularly in winter when the demand for energy is at its highest.
However, as energy can only be generated when the wind blows, this form of energy is location specific (higher altitudes, exposed location) and is often heavily contested in the scenic areas such as mid-wales, where many wind farms are located.
In 2017, 44% of denmarks electricity was supplied by wind (including offshore wind farms)

Question 63

What is hydropower?

Answer 63

Hydropower is one of the most mature of the alternative sources of energy. Although it generates a cheap form of electricity compared to other renewables, its initial cost of infrastructure can be high and construction often destroys local river ecosystems (eg the Yangtze river dolphin may be extinct) and communities.
The methane released from the resultant decaying vegetation is a powerful greenhouse gas.
Venezuela relies heavily on hydroelectric power from the Guri Dam, built in the 1970s/80s, however hydropower met less than 25% of Venezuelas energy demands in 2014 due to drought conditions associated with El Nino.

Question 64

What is solar power?

Answer 64

After hydropower and wind, solar is the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally installed capacity.
It is pollution free, efficient, requires little maintenance and in theory provides a limitless supply of energy.
Only recently has photovoltaic technology become cheaper compared with fossil fuels, and solar energy varies spacially and temporarily (insolation is limited at high latitudes and in mid-distance latitudes in winter).
More over, many suitable sites such as the sahara desert are great distances from major centres of peopulation, and require development of expensive transmission lines.
Singapore produces 15% of its energy from solar energy, with the potential to increase to 30%.

Question 65

What is geothermal energy?

Answer 65

Geothermal energy provides a constant supply of energy, both in terms of hot water for space heating and electricity generation from steam. It is extremely competitive in suitable areas of tectonic acitivity such as Iceland and New Zealand, but the range of locations where geothermal energy can be exploited cost effectively is limited, given the current technology.
Reykjavik, Iceland meets virtually all its heating needs with geothermal energy, with 99.9% of the cities heating provided by geothermal district heating.

Question 66

What is biomass?

Answer 66

Organic material of biological origin is easy to source and can reduce dependence on fossil fuels, but can lead to rainforest destruction and compromise food production.
Biofuels such as maize and sugar cane may require irrigation and the production, harvesting and transport of biofuels create a carbon footprint.
Vaxjo, Sweden, uses forestry waste transformed to biomass energy to supply over 40% of its electricity and 80% of heating.
Curitiba, Brazil, uses biodiesel only buses.
Algae can grow in salt water and on land unsuitable for crops, so a successful algae based biofuel could provide the world with more energy without posing a challenge to global freshwater and food supplies.

Question 67

What is wave, tidal and ocean energy?

Answer 67

Much of the energy potential of oceans is yet to be developed. The proposed Swansea bay tidal lagoon has the potential to supply energy equivalent to 90% of Swansea Bays annual domestic electricity use (over 155,000 homes). However, at a cost of £85 million, there are problems with funding this form of energy, and there is concern over its environmental effects.

Question 68

What is nuclear energy?

Answer 68

Nuclear is a major supplier worldwide but generates debate. It produces long lasting, dangerous waste, it could fall into the hands of terrorists,and it can be used to produce nuclear weapons. However, there have been very few leaks, and containment is improving. Otherwise, nuclear produces clean and plentiful energy.