Unit D1 - Digestive and Respiratory Systems Flashcards
(158 cards)
1
Q
salivary carbohydrase amylase:
A
- occurs in the oral cavity
- digests polysaccharides to monosaccharides
2
Q
emphysema:
A
- a disorder in which the walls of the alveoli break down and lose their elasticity
- this reduces the surface area for gas exchange, limits lung capacity, and causes oxygen shortages
- permanent and incurable
- caused by smoking
3
Q
Macromolecules summary:
A
- CARBOHYDRATES= preferred energy storage
subunits: monosaccharide
main functions: energy storage
examples of macromolecules: polysaccharides, sugars, starches, and glycogen - LIPIDS= high energy storage compounds
subunits: glycerol and 3 fatty acids
main functions: energy storage and cell membranes
example: triglyceride - PROTEINS= structural components
subunits: polymers of amino acids
main function: catalysis
example: enzymes, polypeptides
4
Q
cystic fibrosis:
A
- genetic condition that disrupts the function of the mucus cells
- normally thin mucus becomes sticky and thick and therefor trapped pathogens cannot be expelled
- leads to repeated lung infections
- treatment includes medications to thin mucus and antibiotics to fight infections
5
Q
Excretory system
A
- kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
- maintains homeostatic conditions within the bloodstream; filters out cellular waste, certain toxins and access water and nutrients
6
Q
Inhibitors:
A
Affects enzyme activity, usually negatively
- are molecules that attach to the enzyme and reduce its ability to bind to the substrate
- not denaturalization
-competitive vs. non-competitive inhibitor
7
Q
transport of carbon dioxide in external respiration:
A
- ~27% of carbon dioxide is carried by hemoglobin
- ~9% is carried in the plasma and remains as carbon dioxide
- the majority of carbon dioxide(~64%) combines with water in the plasma to form carbonic acid
- most carbon dioxide is dissolved in plasma
- CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3 (internal respiration)
- H2CO3 -> CO2 + H2O(external respiration)
8
Q
what does the upper respiratory tract contain?
A
- nasal passages
- pharynx
- glottis
- epiglottis
- larynx
- trachea
9
Q
what component of an enzymatic reaction is affected the most by denaturation?
A
active site
10
Q
inhalation:
A
- diaphragm contracts and pulls down (dome to flat)
- intercostal muscles contract and pull ribs up and out
- increasing lung volume, decreasing air pressure
- air moves into the lungs
- high pressure to low-pressure
11
Q
What is the body’s homeostasis temperature and blood pH?
A
- 37° C
- pH of 7.4 which is neutral or slightly basic
12
Q
what are the 3 sections of the small intestine?
A
- Duodenum**
- Jejunum
- Ileum
13
Q
Carbohydrates( macromolecule):
A
- always contain a carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- same ratio; one carbon, two hydrogen, and one oxygen
- provide short- and long-term energy storage for organisms
- two main types( simple sugars and polysaccharides)
-starts in mouth, stops in stomach, resumes in duodenum
14
Q
intercostal muscles:
A
- rib muscles
- found along the inside surface of the ribs
15
Q
pancreas:
A
-accessory organ
- manufactures enzymes to digest macromolecules
- secretes bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid that enters the small intestine
- secretes protease, carbohydrates, and lipase
- makes enzymes to break down sugars, fats, starches
- pancreatic fluid contains: bicarbonate(not an enzyme), trypsin and chymotrypsin( enzymes that digest proteins), pancreatic amylase(enzyme that digests starches/carbohydrates), and lipase(enzymes that digest lipids)
16
Q
stomach:
A
-digestive tract organ
- adds acid, enzymes, and fluid
- churns, mixes, and grinds food to a liquid mass
17
Q
What alters enzymatic activity:
A
- temp/pH (high temp and high/low pH denatures, low temp freezes)
- competitive inhibition
- substrate concentration
- feedback inhibition
->product inhibits it’s enzyme
->more product=higher chances of inhibition
-> maintains homeostasis
18
Q
The main 3 polymers and their monomeric subunit and enzyme group that hydrolyzes:
A
POLYSACCHARIDE:
monomeric subunit=monosaccharide
enzyme that hydrolyzes polymer = carbohydrase
POLYPEPTIDE(proteins):
monomeric subunit=amino acid
enzyme group that hydrolyzes polymer = protease
TRIGLYCERIDE:
monomeric subunit = glycerol + fatty acids
enzyme group that hydrolyzes the polymer = lipases
19
Q
Nervous system
A
- brain, primal cord, peripheral nerves
- controls physiological processes in conjunction with the endocrine system; senses the environment, directs behavior
20
Q
Digestive tracts 4 main functions:
A
- ingestion(eat)
- digestion(chemical vs. physical)
- absorption(stomach, small intestine, large
intestine) - egestion
21
Q
Homeostasis:
A
Body systems work to maintain homeostasis- a constant internal environment
- temperature of 37° C
- blood pH of 7.4, neutral or slightly basic
- maintaining a consistent internal environment
22
Q
signalling:
A
- one of the 6 main functions of proteins
- growth hormone in blood stream
23
Q
Chyme:
A
food(bolus) mixed with gastric juices
24
Q
gastric juice:
A
- contains: water, mucus, salts, hydrochloric acid(HCI) and enzymes
- pH of 1-3 (denature proteins and kills bacteria)
-acidic
25
protease:
-an enzyme in the stomach that digests proteins
- hydrolyzes proteins to yield polypeptides(not amino acids)
26
glottis:
- part of the upper respiratory tract
- opening from pharynx to larnyx
27
epiglottis:
a flap of tissue that closes as the bolus passes by.
-to prevent food from entering your trachea(windpipe) and lungs
28
lungs:
- part of the lower respiratory tract
- each lung is separated into lobes(right has 3, left has 2)
- the right lung is larger
- each lung is surrounded by pleural membranes that provides elasticity for lungs
- doubled layered membrane - filled with fluid
- serves to stick the lungs to the chest, so they
expand and contract when the chest moves
29
enzymes in chemical digestion:
- salivary carbohydrase amylase, protease: pepsin, protease: trypsin, pancreatic carbohydrase amylase, lipase
30
anus:
- digestive tract organ
- holds rectum closed
- opens to allow elimination
31
what are the 2 stomach sphincters:
cardiac and pyloric
32
structure:
- one of the 6 main functions of proteins
- collagen in skin; keratin in hair, nails, horns
33
Lipase in chemical digestion:
- occurs in the duodenum of the small intestine
- digests lipids(triglycerides) to fatty acids and glycerol
34
gall bladder:
-accessory organ
- stores bile from liver and injects it into the duodenum when needed
35
Lymphatic/ immune system
- lymph, lymph nodes and vessels, white blood cells
- carries fat and excess fluids to the blood; destroys invading microbes
36
bronchioles:
- part of the lower respiratory tract
- bronchi branch into many bronchioles
- smaller, finer tubes
- bronchi and bronchioles are lined with mucus and
cilia
37
main functions of the respiratory system:
1. takes oxygen from outside body to cells inside the body
2. releases carbon dioxide from the body
38
epiglottis:
- part of the upper respiratory tract
- flap that covers the opening to the trachea when food is swallowed
39
the mechanics of breathing:
- the inhalation and exhalation of air into and out of our lungs depends of differences in air pressure
- gases move from areas of high pressure to low pressure
- two muscular structures control the air pressure inside of the lungs (intercostal muscles and diaphragm)
- diaphragm, intercostal muscles, rib cage, pleura membrane and fluid, pressure and volume
- high elevation or volume = low pressure, low elevation or volume = high pressure
40
What are the two methods of macromolecule synthesis?
Dehydration synthesis(anabolic) and hydrolysis(catabolic)
41
liver:
-accessory organ
- manufacturing bile (a detergent-like substance that facilitates digestion of fats)
- secretes(creates bile) - a greenish-yellow fluid containing bile pigments and bile salts
- bile salts: - emulsifying fats (lipids) (Physical
digestion)
- breaking fats into smaller pieces
42
Physical breakdown of digestion:
chewing, churning, segmentation, emulsification
43
Competitive inhibitor:
- both the inhibitor and substrate compete to occupy the active site
- if the inhibitor is present in high enough concentrations, enzyme activity is inhibited completely
- irreversible
44
examples of polysaccharides:
Starch, glycogen, cellulose,
heparin, and peptidoglycan
45
transport of oxygen in external respiration:
- 99% of oxygen is carried in the red blood cells by hemoglobin
- a very small portion of oxygen is dissolved in plasma
46
Polypeptide:
Many amino acids put together
- protein
47
examples of monosaccharides:
- glucose
- galactose
- fructose
-ribose
- xylose
48
esophagus(digestive tract):
- doesn't aid in digestion
- straight muscular tube
- connects the mouth and the stomach
- the bolus of food stretches the esophagus, activating perstalsis
- secretes mucus to help lubricate food
- swallowing is initiated in the upper esophagus by voluntary muscles
- lower 2/3 of esophagus is involuntary muscles
49
is your small intestine acidic or basic?
basic
50
gums to bum in the digestive tract:
1. Oral Cavity (tongue, teeth, salivary
glands(chemical digestion), pharynx, epiglottis)
2. Esophagus (food from mouth to stomach)
3. Stomach
4. Small intestine
5. Large intestine
6. Anus
51
Unsaturated fatty acids:
- type of lipid
- plant-based oils
- liquid at room temp
- lacking some hydrogen atoms, kinked
- generally healthier
- except trans unsaturated fats
52
what happens during inspiration:
- inhalation:
intercostal muscles which lift the rib cage up and out
-diaphragm contracts and pulls down
- lungs expand and increase volume, decreases pressure
53
asthma:
- chronic inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles, reducing air-flow
- inhalers work to reduce the inflammation and relax bronchiole muscles to open airway
54
internal respiration:
- occurs in tissues
- gases exchanged between the capillaries and the cells
- oxygen moves from the capillaries to the cells
- carbon dioxide moves from the cells to the capillaries (CO2 + H2O -> H2CO3)
- occurs through diffusion
55
trachea:
- part of the upper respiratory tract
- the wind pipe
- strengthened by semicircular arches or cartilage
- has mucus and cilia to help moisten, warm, and clean the air entering the lungs
56
external respiration:
- occurs in the lungs
- gases exchanged between the air in the alveoli and blood in the capillaries
- oxygen moves from alveoli to capillaries(hemoglobin in red blood cells)
- carbon dioxide moves from capillaries to alveoli(H2CO3 -> CO2 + H2O)
57
storage:
- one of the 6 main functions of proteins
- albumin made by liver, keeps fluid in bloodstream
58
medulla:
regulates automatic functions
- part of the brain stem
59
Macromolecule synthesis:
- all macromolecules are assembled and disassembled the same way
- two methods
60
Hydrolysis:
- catabolic
- polymer to monomer
- process where macromolecules are broken down into their individual subunits(polymer to monomer)
- water(an H and an OH-) is added and a macromolecule is divided into two subunits
61
Chemical breakdown of digestion:
hydrolysis
62
What are the four categories of macromolecules?
- carbohydrates(sugars)
- lipids(fats)
- proteins
- nucleic acids(not important)
63
is the stomach acidic or basic?
acidic
64
lipids( macromolecule):
- fats and oils- also called triglycerides( polymer of lipids)
- made up of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids( monomer of lipids)
- insoluble in water( because they are nonpolar molecules)
- some function as energy storage and insulation
- others make up cell membranes( phospholipids)
- two types
65
rectum and anus:
- digestive tract organs
- rectum stores waste until it is ready to be eliminated
- anus is controlled by 2 sphincters
- waste is moved out through peristalsis
66
Bronchitis:
- a disorder that causes the bronchi to become inflamed and filled with mucus which is expelled by coughing
- acute bronchitis is a short term bacterial infection
- chronic bronchitis is a long term disorder where cilia is destroyed and there is no treatment (most common cause is smoking)
67
the protease pepsin in chemical digestion:
- occurs in the stomach
- digests protein to small polypeptides
68
are amino acids monomers or polymers?
monomer
69
nasal passages:
- part of the upper respiratory tract
- air enters through the nasal cavity via the nostrils or oral cavity
- nasal passages warm up, moisten, and clean the incoming air
-lined with ciliated cells that sweep foreign particles back
- secretes mucus that traps foreign particles and moistens the air
- lined with many blood vessels that warms the incoming air
70
what are the two requirements for respiration?
1. large surface area for gas exchange
2. moist environment for diffusion to occur
71
villi:
- Tiny hair-like projections that line the inside of the small intestine
-villi is covered in microvilli
- each villus contains capillary(blood) and lymph networks
72
pancreatic carbohydrase amylase in chemical digestion:
- occurs in the duodenum
- digests polysaccharides to monosaccharides
73
Saturated fatty acids:
- type of lipid
- animal based fats
- solid at room temp
- contain as many hydrogen atoms as possible
74
Simple sugars:
- monosaccharide- one sugar ring
example; glucose, fructose, galactose
- disaccharide- made up of two sugar rings( two monosaccharides join together)
example; sucrose, lactose, maltose
75
tonsillitis:
- upper respiratory tract infection
- a viral infection of the tonsils
76
duodenum:
- chemical digestion(protease, carbohydrates, and lipase)
- first 25cm of small intestine
- widest portion of the small intestine
- the majority of chemical digestion
- surface of small intestine covered with villi
- villi is covered in microvilli
- each villus contains capillary(blood( and lymph networks
77
enzymes:
- words ending in -ase are usually an enzyme
- specialized protein molecules that function as a biological catalyst
- affected by temperature and pH
- low temperature, the enzyme freezes
- high temp the enzyme will denature
- high or low pH, the enzyme will denature
78
Digestive system:
- Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, glands, producing digestive secretions
- supplies the body with nutrients that provide energy and materials for growth and maintenance
79
Bronchus/bronchi:
- part of the lower respiratory tract
- trachea branches into the left and right bronchus
- contains c-shaped cartilaginous rings
80
pneumonia:
- alveoli become inflamed and fill with fluid
- fluid interferes with gas exchange, and the body becomes starved for oxygen
- two types: lobular and bronchial
81
catalyze:
speeds up reactions
82
What are all of the organs where direct chemical digestion occurs?
oral cavity, stomach, small intestines
83
how does air move in terms of pressure?
air moves from higher pressure to an area of lower pressure
84
fats:
- fats in the duodenum stimulate secretion of bile(emulsifies fat droplets)
- lipase enzyme breaks down fats in the duodenum
- the lymph vessels carry monomers to the chest and into the bloodstream
- lipase(in the lining of blood vessels) removes protein coating
- lipase hydrolyzes triglycerides = making three fatty acids and glycerol
85
movement:
- one of the 6 main functions of proteins
- actin and myosin in muscles
86
esophagus:
- digestive tract organ
- directs food from mouth to stomach
87
cardiac sphincter:
- the "valve" between the esophagus and the stomach
-allows food in the stomach
- if weak, stomach acid can go back into the esophagus which results in heart burn/acid reflux
88
How is homeostasis maintained?
-Through negative feedback loops
- a censor detects an upset in the steady state(ex. low body temp)
-this signals are control center(brain)
-and then activates an effector which reverses the change(ex. shivers)
89
Endocrine system
- a variety of hormone-secreting glands and organs including the hypothalamus pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenals, ovaries, and testicles
-, controls physiological processes, typically in conjunction with the nervous system
90
Circulatory system
- heart, blood vessels, blood
transports nutrients, gasses, hormones, metabolic wastes, also assists in temperature control
91
ulcers:
- mucus lining in the stomach is eroded
- most ulcers are caused by acid-resistant bacterua
- holes in the stomach lining
92
- pleural membranes in the lungs:
- provides elasticity for lungs
- double-layered membrane filled with fluid(pleural fluid)
- serves to stick the lungs to the chest so they can expand and contract when the chest moves
- pleura fluid acts as a lubricant which allows for free movement of the lugs against the chest when we breathe
93
disaccharide:
- digests lactose
- sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined
94
feedback inhibition:
- process in which the products of an enzymatic reaction inhibit the enzyme
- more product = a higher chance of inhibition
- maintains homeostasis
95
defense:
- one of the 6 main functions of proteins
- antibodies in bloodstream
96
what happens during expiration:
exhalation:
- intercostal muscles relax allowing the rib cage to return to its normal position
- diaphragm relaxes to its dome shape pushing air out of the lungs
- lungs contract and air moves out of lugs causing a decrease in volume but and increase in pressure
97
mouth:
- digestive tract organ
- chews and mixes food with saliva
98
accessory organs:
- all connect to duodenum
- digestion requires a variety of enzymes produced into the small intestine, as well as secretions from the pancreas, gallbladder, and liver
99
laryngitis:
- upper respiratory tract infection
- inflammation of the larynx
100
Dehydration synthesis:
- anabolic
- monomer to polymer
- process where macromolecules are assembled
- water(an H nd OH-) is removed to join two sub-molecules
101
gall stones:
- cholesterol crystals forming out of the bile that grown in the gallbladder
- blocts ducts
size: grain of sand to golf ball
102
Large intestine:
- Digestive tract organ
- wider than the small intestine but only about 1.5 m long
- main function is to concentrate waste and absorb water
- colon(main portion of large intestine) absorbs water and salts
- also contains bacteria which removes vitamins and minerals from undigested food
103
the protease trypsin in chemical digestion:
- occurs in the small intestine specifically in the duodenum
- digests small polypeptides to amino acids
104
Muscular system
- Skeletal muscle smooth muscle cardiac muscle
- moves the skeleton, controls movement of substances through hollow organs( digestive tract, large blood vessels), initiates and implements heart contractions
105
Digestive tract structures(organs that contain food):
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus
106
Small intestine:
- digestive tract organ
- small in width, long in length
- 7m
- 250m^2 surface ares(very large)
- unlike the stomach, it's pH is slightly basic(8)
- physical digestion
-segmentation(sloshing back and forth as
peristalsis moves forward)
- divided into 3 main sections
107
Catalyst:
Using a catalyst can speed up and lower the energy required for a chemical reaction
- they are not used up in the reaction
108
Macromolecules:
Macromolecules are polymers: long molecules formed by covalently linking many subunits(monomers)
109
small intestine:
- digestive tract organ
- secretes enzymes that digest macromolecules
- absorbs hydrolyzed molecules into the bloodstream
110
Upper respiratory tract infections:
- short-term and no not obstruct breathing
TONSILLITIS AND LARYNGITIS
111
lung cancer:
- uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the lungs
- leading cause of cancer deaths in Canada
- malignant tumors called carcinomas decrease surface area and may stop air from entering bronchioles
- tobacco smoke is carcinogenic(high chance of causing mutations)
112
Accessory organs/ structures that aid digestion(doesn't touch food):
- salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas
113
exhalation:
- diaphragm relaxes and returns to dome shape
- intercostal muscles relax, causing the rib cage to fall
- decreasing lung volume, increasing air pressure
- air moves out of lungs
114
Proteins( macromolecule):
- six main functions of proteins;
- structure
- movement
- defense
- storage
- signalling
- catalyzing reactions
- proteins assemble from smaller subunits called amino acids
- polypeptides from pepsin produced in the stomach are further digested in the small intestine by proteases
- proteases hydrolyze the peptide bonds to form short peptide chains
- amino acids are then absorbed into villi in the small intestine and then into blood vessels through active transport and then carried to liver
115
Negative feedback inhibition:
duodenum senses an increase in monomer content and signals the pancreas to deactivate
116
What are the two main types of carbohydrates?
Simple sugars( simple carbohydrates) and polysaccharides( complex carbohydrates)
117
pharynx:
- part of the upper respiratory tract
- commonly called the throat
- passageway for air into lungs, and food into
stomach
118
hemoglobin:
iron containing oxygen transport metalloprotein in red blood cells
119
Polysaccharides( complex carbohydrates):
- complex carbohydrates consist of many linked simple sugars
- used for energy storage
-plants use starch for energy storage/ cellulose for structural integrity
- animals use glycogen
120
What are the human systems?
Digestive, respiratory, muscular, circulatory, lymphatic/immune, excretory, nervous, endocrine, integumentary
121
Lower respiratory tract disorders:
- disorders of the lower respiratory tract can impair the delivery of oxygen to the cells
- Bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema, cystic fybrosis, asthma, lung cancer
122
catalyzing reactions:
- one of the 6 main functions of proteins
- enzymes(ex. amylase digest carbohydrates; ATP synthase makes ATP)
123
salivary glands:
- accessory organ
- secret starch-digesting enzymes
124
steps of external respiration:
1. inhalation
2. gas exchange (diffusion of carbon dioxide and
oxygen between alveoli and capillaries)
3. exhalation
125
peristalsis:
involuntary rhythmic contractions that move food uni-directionally
- happens in esophagus
126
digestive system disorders:
- ulcers
- reflux desease
- inflammatory bowel disease
- cirrhosis
- gallstones
- colorectal cancer
- eating disorders
127
Oral cavity(digestive tract):
- physical breakdown(chewing food)
- chemical breakdown:
~saliva is secreted by the three saliviary glands in your mouth
-saliva lubricates mouth to assist in swallowing
- dissolves food which gives you taste
- salivary amylase -> starch(polysaccharide
digestion)
-the tongue pushes the bolus into the back of your mouth fro swallowing it
-epiglottis
128
pyloric sphincter:
- the "valve" between the stomach and the duodenum(in the small intestine)
-physical and chemical
- churning
- protein denaturation
-protease(chemical digestion)
129
Chemical digestion:
- All three macromolecules(proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids) are hydrolyzed through the use of enzymes
- All of them are absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport in the small intestine
130
stomach(digestive tract):
-highly elastic, muscular J-shaped dack
- can hold about 1 L of food
- the movement of food to and from the stomach is regulated by 2 circular muscles called sphincters (like drawstrings)
131
bronchial pneumonia:
caused by virus
132
the respiraroty tract:
the passageway for air to move from external to internal
-The principle organ is the lungs
- split into two parts(the upper and lower respiratory tract)
133
what is starch?
a polysacharide(carbohydrate)
134
what does the lower respiratory tract contain?
- lungs
- bronchus/brinchi
- bronchioles
- alveoli
135
How is physical digestion continued from the mouth?
- by mixing stomach contents with gastric juice and churning it
-mucus lining in the stomach prevents damage from gastric juice
- not much absorption of nutrients yet (some water, alcohol, and anti-inflammatory drugs are absorbed)
136
The process of digestion in the digestive system:
- the process of digestion involves both physical
breakdown and chemical breakdown
- the resulting molecules diffuse into the
bloodstream and then diffuse into cells
- once it's in it's monomer form, it can be absorbed
- digestive tract has 4 major functions:
137
what enzyme class is secreted into the stomach and duodenum?
protease
138
diaphragm:
- a dome-shaped layer of muscle below the lungs that separates the thoratic cavity from the abdominal cavity
139
Positive feedback loop:
- duodenum senses an increase in polymers and sends a signals the pancreas to activate and secrete enzymes
140
alveoli:
- part of the lower respiratory tract
- bronchioles branch off further into tiny sacks called alveoli
- about 300 million alveoli in one pair of lungs
- where gas exchange takes place
- the alveolar wall is 1 cell thick and surrounded
by a net of capillaries
- contains lipids and lipoproteins which lubricate
the alveoli (reduces surface tension and allows
them to open easily - prevents sides from
sticking together)
141
What are the two types of lipids?
Saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids
142
what are the four main stages of respiration?
1. breathing: between outside and lungs
2. external respiration: between lungs and blood(alveoli to capillaries)
3. internal respiration: between blood and the body's cells(capillaries to muscles)
4. cellular respiration: oxygen and carbon dioxide are produced to provide energy for the cell
143
where is the anal sphincter:
between the large intestine and rectum
144
regulation of breathing:
- chemoreceptors in the medulla detect high acidity of blood
- this stimulates a nerve response to increasing breathing movements
- this expels more CO2 and acidity decreases(negative feedback)
145
digestive tract(organs that contain food):
- also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tracts
- the food passes through the tracts
- open-ended tube: 6.5-9 m long
-gums to bum
146
the main purpose of internal respiration:
deliver oxygen to the cells and remove carbon dioxide
CAPILLARIES <---> MUSCLES
147
testing for macromolecules:
proteins:
- biuret reagent -> turns purple +ve
starch:
- iodine solution -> turns blue/black +ve
monosaccharides (glucose):
- benedict's reagent
- red/orange = high sugar
- yellow/green = low sugar
lipids:
- brown paper -> turns translucent
148
thermoregulation:
- respiration will decrease core body temp
- if core body temp(37 degrees celsius) increases then you start to breathe more and your heart rate increases
-if core body temp decreases you will experience shivering and therefore you will breathe less and your heart rate will decrease(hypothermia)
149
Amino acids:
- 20 types( our body can synthesize 11, the rest must come from diet)
- bonded together by peptide bonds
- chain is called polypeptide (polymer of proteins)
- polypeptide strand coiled into 3D structure
- the shape determines the function of the protein
- heat can damage shape( denature)
- loss of shape equals loss of function
-existence of nitrogen and usually an r group
150
what are enzymes
proteins that catalyze reactions
- specialized protein molecules that function as a biological catalyst
- ending in -ase means it is an enzyme
- enzymes are affected by temperature and pH
- low temp, enzymes freeze
- high temp or high/low pH will denature the
enzyme
- inhibitors affect enzyme activity, usually negatively
151
Integumentary system
- skin, hair, nails, sensory receptors, various glands
- protects the underlying structures from damage; regulates body temperature; since as many features of the external environment
152
large intestine:
- digestive tract organ
- absorbs water and salts
- passes remaining undigested material and some water out of the body
153
Respiratory system
-Nose, pharynx, trachea, lungs, gills
-provides a large area for gas exchange between the blood and the environment; allows oxygen and carbon dioxide elimination
154
examples of disaccharides:
sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
155
lobular pneumonia:
caused by bacterium (strept)
156
steps of internal resp:
1. oxygen transportation: oxygen-rich blood is delivered to body tissues and cells
2: gas exchange: in capillaries, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells into the blood
3. carbon dioxide transport: carbon dioxide rich blood is carried back to the lungs where it is removed during external resp.
157
larynx:
- part of the upper respiratory tract
- commonly called the voice box
- made of cartilage and contains the vocal cords
- larger larynx = deeper voice
158
where is the duodenum located:
- between the stomach and the small intestine
