Week 14

Question 1

Three perspectives that interact to shape development

Answer 1

1. Social context in which each child lives, especially the relationships that provide security, guidance and knowledge
2. biological maturation that supports developing social and emotional competencies and underlies temperamental individuality
3. Children’s developing representations of themselves and the social world

Question 2

How is social and personality development best understood

Answer 2

The continuous interaction between these social, biological, and representational aspects of psychological development

Question 3

How the interaction of relationships can be observed in the development of the earliest relationship between infants and their parents

Answer 3

Virtually all infants living in normal circumstances develop strong emotional attachments to those who care for them. The development of these attachments is as biologically natural as learning to walk and not simply by a byproduct of the parents’ provision of food or warmth

Question 4

Secure attachment

Answer 4

Infants become securely attached when their parents respond sensitively to them, reinforcing the infants’ confidence that their parents will provide support when needed

Question 5

Insecure attachment

Answer 5

Infants become insecurely attached when care is inconsistent or neglectful; these infants tend to respond avoidantly, resistantly, or in a disorganized manner. Such insecure attachments are not necessarily the result of deliberately bad parenting but are often a byproduct of circumstances

Question 6

Strange situation

Answer 6

A standard laboratory procedure that involves brief separations from the caregiver. Depending ont he child’s level of attachment, he or she may reject the parent, cling to the parent, or simply welcome the parent- or, in some instances, react with an agitated combination of responses

Question 7

Security of attachment

Answer 7

An infant’s confidence in the sensitively and responsiveness of a caregiver, especially when he or she is needed. Infants can be securely or insecurely attached

Question 8

Why is security of attachment important

Answer 8

Infants and young children who are securely attached have been found to develop stronger friendships with peers, more advanced emotional understanding and early conscience development, and more positive self-concepts, compared with insecurely attached children

Question 9

What happens to parent-child relationships as children mature

Answer 9

they naturally change. Preschool and grade-school children are more capable, have their own preferences, and sometimes refuse to seek or compromise with parental expectations. This can lead to greater parent-child conflict, and how conflict is managed by parents further shapes the quality of parent-child relationships

Question 10

Authoritative

Answer 10

A parenting style characterized by high (but reasonable) expectations for children’s behaviour, good communication, warmth and nurturance, and the use of reasoning (rather than coercion) as preferred responses to children’s misbehaviour. Supportive and show interest in their kids’ activities but are not overbearing and allow them to make constructive mistakes

Question 11

Authoritarian

Answer 11

Discipline using threats and punishment. May praise obedience as a virtue and expect their children to follow rues without explanation

Question 12

Permissive

Answer 12

Believe children learn best on their own. Allow children a great deal of freedom in regulating their own lives and place few demands on them to achieve or to behave appropriately

Question 13

Rejecting-Neglectful

Answer 13

Do not set limits or monitor the activities of their children. Place own needs above children

Question 14

Family stress model

Answer 14

Describes how financial difficulties are associated with parents’ depressed moods, which in turn lead to marital problems and poor parenting that contributes to poorer child adjustment.

Question 15

Importance of social interaction with another child who is similar in age, skills, and knowledge

Answer 15

In peer relationships, children learn how to initiate and maintain social interactions with other children. Learn skills for managing conflict, such as turn taking, compromise, and bargaining

Question 16

Play

Answer 16

Involves the mutual, sometimes complex, coordination of goals, actions, and understanding. Through these experiences, children develop friendships that provide additional sources of security and support to those provided by their patients

Question 17

Peer relationships

Answer 17

Being accepted by other children is an important source of affirmation and self-esteem, but peer rejection can foreshadow later behaviour problems. Children confront the challenges of bullying, peer victimization, and managing conformity pressures

Question 18

Social comparison with peers

Answer 18

An important means by which children evaluate their skills, knowledge, and personal qualities, but it may cause them to feel that they do not measure up well against others. Peer relationships become focused on psychological intimacy, involving personal disclosure, vulnerability, and loyalty-which significantly affects a child’s outlook on the world

Question 19

how young children begin developing social understanding very early in life

Answer 19

Before the end of first year, infants are aware that other people have perceptions, feelings, and other mental states that affect their behaviour, and which are different from the child’s own mental states

Question 20

Social referencing

Answer 20

the process by which one individual consults another’s emotional expressions to determine how to evaluate and respond to circumstances that are ambiguous or uncertain

Question 21

How do infants show awareness

Answer 21

By “reading” the emotion on their moms face, infants can learn about whether the circumstance is safe or dangerous, and how to respond

Question 22

Temperament

Answer 22

Early emerging differences in reactivity and self-regulation, which constitutes a foundation for personality development. is biologically based, interacts with the influence of experience from the moment of birth to shape personality. Temperamental dispositions are affected by the support level of parental care for example

Question 23

Personality

Answer 23

Shaped by the goodness of fit between the child’s temperamental qualities and characteristics of the environment

Question 24

Goodness of fit

Answer 24

The match or synchrony between a child’s temperament and characteristics of parental care that contributes to positive or negative personality development. A good “fit” means that parents have accommodated to the child’s temperamental attributes, and this contributes to positive personality growth and better adjustment.

Question 24

Qualities that are influenced by biological dispositions and even more by the child's experiences with others

Answer 24

Children's developing self-concept, their motivation to achieve or to socialize, their values and goals, their coping styles, their sense of responsibility and conscientiousness, and many other qualities are encompassed into personality

Question 24

The influence of social and personality development being built from the social, biological, and representational influences

Answer 24

These influences result in important developmental outcomes that matter to children, parents, and society: a young adult's capacity to engage in socially constructive actions, to curb hostile or aggressive impulses, to live according to meaningful values, to develop a healthy identify and sense of self, and to develop talents and achieve success in using them

Question 25

Conscience

Answer 25

Consists of the cognitive, emotional, and social influences that cause young children to create and act consistently with internal standards of conduct. Emerges from young children's experiences with parents, particularly in the development of a mutually responsive relationship that motivates young children to respond constructively to the parents' requests and expectations

Question 26

How conscience development expands as young children begin to represent moral values and think of themselves as moral beings

Answer 26

By the end of the preschool years, young children develop a "moral self" by which they think of themselves as people who want to do the right thing, who feel badly after misbehaving, and who feel uncomfortable when others misbehave. Young children become more socially and emotionally competent in a manner that provides a foundation for later moral conduct

Question 27

The development of gender and gender identity is an interaction among social, biological, and representational influences

Answer 27

Young children learn about gender from parents, peers, and others in society, and develop their own conceptions of the attributes associated with the maleness or femaleness

Question 28

Gender schemas

Answer 28

Organized beliefs and expectations about maleness and femaleness that guide children's thinking about gender

Question 29

What does the growth of social and emotional competence illustrate

Answer 29

The interaction of social, biological, and representational influences, how children's development unfolds over an extended period.

Question 30

Intrapersonal functions of emotions

Answer 30

Refer to the role that emotions play within each of us individually

Question 31

Interpersonal functions of emotions

Answer 31

Refer to the role emotions play between individuals within a group

Question 32

Social and cultural functions of emotions

Answer 32

Refer to the role that emotions play in the maintenance of social order within a society

Question 33

What do emotions do

Answer 33

Inform us of who we are, what our relationships with others are like, how to behave in social interactions, give meanings to events, help coordinate interpersonal relationship, play an important role in the cultural functioning of keeping human societies together, rapid information processing systems that help us act with minimal thinking

Question 34

What would happen if we didn't have emotions

Answer 34

We would not make rapid decisions concerning whether to attack, defend, flee, care for others, reject food, or approach something useful, all of which were functionally adaptive in our evolutionary history and helped us to survive

Question 35

How do emotions prepare us for behaviour

Answer 35

When triggered, emotions orchestrate systems and activate others in order to prevent the chaos of competing systems at the same time, allowing for coordinated responses to environmental stimuli.

Question 36

What happens when we are afraid

Answer 36

our bodies shut down temporarily unneeded digestive processes, resulting in saliva reduction; blood flows disproportionately to the lower half of the body; the visual field expands; and air is breathed in, all preparing the body to flee

Question 37

How do emotions prepare the body for actioin

Answer 37

whether people actually engage in action is dependent on many factors, such as the context within which the emotion is dependent on many factors, such as the context within which the emotion has occurred, the target of the emotion, the perceived consequences of one's actions, previous experiences, and so forth

Question 38

How are emotions connected to thoughts and memories

Answer 38

Memories are not just facts that are encoded in our brains; they are coloured with emotions felt at those times the facts occurred Emotions serve as the neural glue that connects those disparate facts in our minds Emotions serve as the affective basis of many attitudes, values, and beliefs that we have about the world and the people around us; without emotions those attitudes, values, and beliefs would be just be statements without meaning, and emotions give those statements meaning Emotions influence our thinking processes, sometimes in constructive ways, sometimes not

Question 39

How can emotions be expressed nonverbally

Answer 39

We are constantly expressing emotions when interacting with others, and others can reliably judge those emotional expressions Facial expressions of emotions are universal social signals, they contain meaning not only about the expressor's psychological state but also about that person's intent and subsequent behaviour

Question 40

Why is it important that culture provides necessary coordination and organization

Answer 40

Doing so allows individuals and groups to negotiate the social complexity of human social life, thereby maintaining social order and preventing social chaos Culture does this by providing a meaning and information system to its members, which is shared to a group and transmitted across generations, that allow the group to meet basic needs of survival, pursue happiness and well-being, and derive meaning from life

Question 41

One of the ways cultural transmission occurs

Answer 41

Through the management of our emotional expressions through cultural display rules

Question 42

Cultural display rules

Answer 42

These are rules that are learned early in life that specify the management and modification of emotional expressions according to social circumstances. These are rules that are learned early in life that specify the management and modification of our emotional expressions according to social circumstances

Question 43

Culture

Answer 43

Creates world views, rules, guidelines, and norms concerning emotions because emotions have important intra and interpersonal functions, and are important motivators of behaviour

Question 44

How do cultural worldwide views and norms help us manage and modify our emotional reactions

Answer 44

By helping us to have certain kinds of emotional experiences in the first place and by managing our reactions and subsequent behaviours once we have them

Question 45

What would happen if emotions were not regulated in culturally defined ways for the common social good

Answer 45

It would be difficult for groups and societies to function effectively, and even for humans to survive as a species

Question 46

Attachment theory

Answer 46

Originally developed in the 1940s by John Bowlby, a British psychoanalyst who was attempting to understand the intense distress experienced by infants who had been separated from their parents

Question 47

What did other attachment theories argue

Answer 47

That young infants feel emotionally connected to their mothers because mothers satisfy more basic needs, such as the need for food

Question 48

Harry Harlow

Answer 48

Placed young monkeys in cages that contained two artificial, surrogate "mothers". One of the surrogates was a simple wire contraption; the other was a wire contraption covered in cloth and both were equipped with a feeding tube. He found that the young macaques spent a disproportionate amount of time with the cloth surrogate as opposed to the wire surrogate. The strong emotional bond that infants form with their primary caregivers is rooted in something more than whether the caregiver provides food per se

Question 49

John Bowlby

Answer 49

Argued that these behaviours are adaptive responses to separation from a primary attachment figure

Question 50

Attachment figure

Answer 50

Someone who functions as the primary safe haven and secure base for an individual. In childhood, an individual's attachment figure is often a parent. In adulthood, an individual's attachment figure is often a romantic partner

Question 51

The attachment system

Answer 51

A motivational system selected over the course of evolution to maintain proximity between a young child and his or her primary attachment figure. Functions much like a thermostat that continuously monitors the ambient temperature of a room, comparing that temperature against a desired state and adjusting behaviour accordingly

Question 52

What happens if the child perceives the attachment figure to be nearby, accessible, and attentive

Answer 52

Then the child feels loved, secure, and confident, and behaviourally, is likely to explore his or her environment play with others, and be sociable

Question 53

what happens if the child perceives the attachment figure to be inaccessible

Answer 53

The child experiences anxiety and behaviourally, is likely to exhibit attachment behaviours ranging from simple visual searching on the low extreme to active searching, following, and vocal signalling on the other

Question 54

Attachment behaviours

Answer 54

Behaviours and signals that attract the attention of a primary attachment figure and function to prevent separation from that individual or to reestablish proximity to that individual

Question 55

Secure children

Answer 55

most children (60%) behave in the way implied by Bowlby's normative theory. they become upset when the parents leave the room but when he or she return, they actively seek the parent and are easily comforted by him or her

Question 56

Anxious-resistant children

Answer 56

20% or less are at ease initially, and upon separation, become extremely distressed. When reunited with their parents, these children have a difficult time being soothed and ofthen exhibit conflicting behaviours that suggest they want to be comforted, but that they also want to "punish" the parent for leaving

Question 57

Avoidant children

Answer 57

20% or less. do not consistently behave as if they are stressed by the separation, but, upon reunion, actively avoid seeking contact with their parent, sometimes turning their attention to play objects on the laboratory floor

Question 58

Why was Ainsworth's work important

Answer 58

1. Provided one of the first empirical demonstrations of how attachment behaviour is organized in unfamiliar contexts 2. Provided the first empirical taxonomy of individual differences in attachment patterns 3. Concluded that three types of children exist 4. Demonstrated that individual differences were correlated with infant-parent interaction in the home during the first year of life

Question 59

Attachment patterns

Answer 59

Also called "attachment styles" or "attachment orientation". Individual differences in how securely (vs insecurely) people think, feel, and behave in attachment relationships

Question 60

One of the key determinants of attachment patterns

Answer 60

The history of sensitive and responsive interactions between the caregiver and the child. When the child is uncertain or stressed, the ability of the caregiver to provide support to the child is critical for his or her psychological development

Question 61

How do supportive interactions help the child

Answer 61

Help the child learn to regulate his or her emotions, give the child the confidence to explore the environment, and provide the child with a safe haven during stressful circumstances

Question 62

What did Grossman and her colleagues find

Answer 62

That children who were more likely than children classified as insecure to have mothers who provided care to their children in the home environment

Question 63

Van den Boom's intervention

Answer 63

Designed to enhance maternal sensitive responsiveness. When the infants were 9 months old, the mothers in the intervention group were rated as more responsible and attentive in their interaction with their infants compared to mothers in the control group. Their infants were rated as more sociable, self-soothing, and more likely to explore the environment. At 12 months of age, children in the intervention group were more likely to be classified as secure than insecure in the strange situation

Question 64

Association between children's attachment patterns and their adaption over time

Answer 64

Researchers have learned that children who are classified as secure in the strange situation are more likely to have high functioning relationships with peers, to be evaluated favourably by teachers, and to persist with more diligence in challenging tools Insecure avoidant children are more likely to be constructed as "bullies" or to have a difficult time building and maintaining friendships

Question 65

The emotional bond that develops between adult romantic partners vs the bond between infants and their caregivers

Answer 65

In both kinds of relationships, people fel safe and secure when the other person is present, turn to the other person during times of sickness, distress, or fear, use the other person as a "secure base" from which to explore the world, and speak to one another in a unique language, often called "motherese" or "baby talk"

Question 66

Technology from an attachment perspective

Answer 66

These innovations in communications technology are important because they allow people to stay connected virtually to their attachment figures-regardless of the physical distance that might exist between them

Question 67

Oldmeadow and the facebook study

Answer 67

People were more likely to report using Facebook to connect with others when they were experiencing negative emotions. Researchers found that people who were more anxious in their attachment orientation were more likely to use Facebook frequently, but people who were more avoidant used Facebook less and were less open on the site

Question 68

The transfer of attachment from caregiver to romantic partner

Answer 68

Individuals gradually transfer attachment-related functions from parents to peers as they develop. although young children tend to use their parents as their primary attachment figures, as they reach adolescence and young adulthood, they come to rely more upon close friends and/or romantic partners for basic attachment-related functions

Question 69

Attachment patterns and dating

Answer 69

In a research study with more than 83 heterosexual couples, it was found that if a man is relatively secure, the woman was also likely to be secure. When people have the opportunity to interact with individuals who vary in security in speed-dating context, they express a greater interest in those who are higher in security than those who are more insecure