Week 16 - Risk Factors And Studying Depression

Question 1

What is meant by the term odds ratio?

Answer 1

The statistical measure of association between an outcome and an event

Question 2

What does an odds ratio represent?

Answer 2

The odds that an outcome will occur given a specific event compared with the odds of the outcome occurring in the absence of the event

Question 3

What does a higher odds ratio represent?

Answer 3

A stronger association between the event and the outcome

Question 4

What is meant by the term chronic stress?

Answer 4

A situation caused by repeated and/or prolonged exposure to negative stimuli that results in continuous activation of the body’s stress response

Question 5

Why did stress responses evolve?

Answer 5

To help animals respond quickly to dangerous situations such as being chased by a predator

Question 6

What body systems can stress have an impact on?

Answer 6

• Immune system
• Digestive system
• Cardiovascular system
• Nervous system

Question 7

Where in the body is the adrenal cortex found?

Answer 7

Near the kidney

Question 8

What are the structures of the HPA axis?

Answer 8

• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary gland
• Adrenal gland

Question 9

What parts of the brain does the HPA axis have important links to?

Answer 9

• Amygdala
• Hippocampus
• Prefrontal cortex

Question 10

Which hormone is released from the hypothalamus as part of the HPA axis?

Answer 10

Corticotropin-releasing factor

Question 11

Cortisol attaches to what type of receptors?

Answer 11

Glucocorticoid receptors

Question 12

Cortisol acts via glucocorticoid receptors to inhibit activity of the HPA axis so that less cortisol is secreted. Why does cortisol become less effective in inhibiting the HPA axis during chronic stress?

Answer 12

Because high levels of cortisol are present during chronic stress

Question 13

What is meant by the term early-life stress?

Answer 13

Significant traumatic experiences that occur in childhood. It is a risk factor for depression in later life

Question 14

What is early life stress a risk factor for?

Answer 14

Depression in later life

Question 15

Women who have been abused in childhood are how many times more likely to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder in adulthood?

Answer 15

Four times

Question 16

What is dexamethasone?

Answer 16

A synthetic glucocorticoid that activates glucocorticoid receptors

Question 17

What effect does dexamethasone have on the activity of the HPA axis?

Answer 17

It inhibits activity of the HPA axis

Question 18

What are the three components of Beck’s “cognitive theory of depression”?

Answer 18

• Cognitive bias
• Negative self-schema
• The negative triad

Question 19

What is meant by the term cognitive bias?

Answer 19

The tendency to focus on particular aspects of a situation in a systematic way which can lead to errors in judgement or decision-making

Question 20

What are the negative consequences of cognitive bias?

Answer 20

It may lead to errors in judgement or decision-making

Question 21

What is meant by the term negative self-schema?

Answer 21

A person’s set of negative beliefs and assumptions about themselves which can lead to them interpreting situations in a negative way

Question 22

What are the potential negative consequences of a negative self-schema?

Answer 22

A person will have negative beliefs and assumptions about themself, which could lead to them interpreting situations in a negative way

Question 23

Which theory posited that people prone to depression may develop a negative self-schema?

Answer 23

Beck’s cognitive theory of depression

Question 24

What is meant by the term negative triad?

Answer 24

A set of interlinked negative assumptions about the world, oneself and the future

Question 25

What are the three things which a negative self-triad will cause negative assumptions regarding?

Answer 25

- The world - Oneself - The future

Question 26

What is the theory behind Beck’s cognitive theory of depression?

Answer 26

It posits that distorted thoughts and beliefs about oneself, the world and the future contribute to the development and maintenance of depressive symptoms

Question 27

What are four personality traits which are particularly associated with depression?

Answer 27

- Neuroticism - Rumination - Self-criticism - Dependency

Question 28

What is meant by the term neuroticism?

Answer 28

The tendency to be emotionally unstable and to experience negative emotions

Question 29

What is meant by the term rumination (with regards to mental health)?

Answer 29

The tendency to dwell on negative thoughts which can have a negative impact on mood

Question 30

What is meant by the term self-criticism (with particular regard to mental health)?

Answer 30

An inclination towards feelings of guilt as a result of high expectations for oneself

Question 31

What is meant by the term dependency (in the context of mental health)?

Answer 31

An inclination towards feelings of helplessness resulting from a reliance on relationships

Question 32

What characteristics of depression might it be possible to reproduce in animal models?

Answer 32

- Alterations in eating patterns - Alterations in sleeping patterns - Anhedonia - Helplessness

Question 33

What is meant by the term mini-brains?

Answer 33

A structure grown in a laboratory from stem cells

Question 34

Why are mini-brains useful?

Answer 34

They allow us to mimic certain aspects of the structure and function of the brain for research purposes

Question 35

Can mini-brains produce spontaneous electrical activity?

Answer 35

Yes!

Question 36

What are some practical reasons which mean it is not possible to develop a perfect animal model for depression?

Answer 36

- Causative factors in humans are not completely understood - Some factors cannot be reproduced in animals (eg psychosocial factors) - Some symptoms cannot be measured in animals

Question 37

With regards to research methods, what is meant by the term internal validity?

Answer 37

How well a study or experiment is designed and conducted

Question 38

With regards to research methods, how is internal validity achieved?

Answer 38

If all variables that could influence the outcome, other than the one being studied/manipulated, have been controlled

Question 39

With regards to research methods, what is meant by the term external validity?

Answer 39

The relevance of a study or experiment’s results to other people and situations beyond the scope of the study

Question 40

With regards to research methods, what is meant by the term reliability?

Answer 40

The extent to which an evaluation or measuring procedure yields the same results or leads to the same conclusions when performed by different researchers

Question 41

If a measurement is reliable, does that automatically mean it is also valid?

Answer 41

No

Question 42

Establishing the validity of animal models requires the consideration of which types of validity?

Answer 42

- Face validity - Predictive validity - Construct validity

Question 43

What is meant by the term aetiology?

Answer 43

The causes or origin of a disorder or condition, or the factors that predispose towards a disorder or condition

Question 44

What techniques could be used to investigate the neuroanatomical basis of depression?

Answer 44

- Neuroimaging techniques such as PET, EEG or MRI/fMRI - Post-mortem studies

Question 45

Data from the UK Biobank imaging study has shown what difference to the white matter in brains of people with depression?

Answer 45

White matter integrity is reduced in people experiencing major depression