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SK298 - Brain, the mind & mental health > Week 2 - Structure of the brain > Flashcards

Week 2 - Structure of the brain Flashcards

1
Q

What are the components of the Central Nervous System?

A
  • The brain
  • The spinal cord
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2
Q

What is the Peripheral Nervous System?

A

The part of the nervous system that consists of nerves that are located outside of the brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

What are afferent neurons?

A

Nerves that carry information from the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord and brain

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4
Q

What are efferent neurons?

A

Nerves that carry information from the spinal cord and brain to the peripheral nervous system

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5
Q

What are sensory neurons?

A

A type of afferent neuron that carries information about the internal and external environment from the PNS to the CNS

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6
Q

Are sensory neurons afferent or efferent?

A

Afferent

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7
Q

Are motor neurons afferent or efferent?

A

Efferent

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8
Q

What are motor neurons?

A

Neurons that carry information from the brain to the muscles to initiate movement

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9
Q

What are the two main subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System?

A
  • Autonomic nervous system
  • Somatic nervous system
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10
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

The part of the nervous system which controls activities of the body that are outside of conscious control, eg heart rate and digestion of food

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11
Q

What are the two components of the autonomic nervous system?

A
  • Sympathetic nervous system
  • Parasympathetic nervous system
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12
Q

What is the sympathetic nervous system?

A

The part of the autonomic nervous system which controls “fight or flight” responses

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13
Q

What is the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The part of the autonomic nervous system which deals with “rest and digest”

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14
Q

What is the sensory nervous system?

A

The system which is responsible for sensory neurons communicating information from the sense organs to the brain

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15
Q

What is the motor nervous system?

A

The system which deals with neurons which are responsible for the voluntary control of movement

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16
Q

What are the general characteristics of a stress response?

A
  • Increase in heart rate
  • Increase in breathing (lungs dilate)
  • Decrease in digestive activity
  • Liver releases glucose for energy
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17
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

Chemicals released by neurons which have effects on neighbouring cells

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18
Q

What are the 3 types of cells that neurotransmitters affect?

A
  • Neurons
  • Endocrine cells
  • Muscle cells
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19
Q

What are receptors?

A

Proteins on or within a cell which respond to a biological molecule such as a neurotransmitter

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20
Q

What is noradrenalin?

A

A neurotransmitter which is primarily used within the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system to transmit information to effector cells

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21
Q

What is noradrenalin also known as?

A

Norepinephrine

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22
Q

What type of cells does noradrenalin affect?

A

Effector cells

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23
Q

Within which branch of the autonomic nervous system is noradrenlin primarily used?

A

The sympathetic branch

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24
Q

Along with the sympathetic nervous system, what is the other component of a stress response?

A

The neuroendocrine system

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25
Q

What is the neuroendocrine system?

A

The system which comprises the hypothalamus and glands and controls hormone levels in the blood

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26
Q

What does the neuroendocrine system control?

A

Hormone levels in the blood

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27
Q

What is the function of hormones?

A

To regulate the activity level of cells and tissues

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28
Q

What is the difference between a hormone and a neurotransmitter?

A
  • A hormone is a chemical which is released from a gland into the blood and circulates around the body
  • A neurotransmitter is a chemical which is released from neurons to act directly on their target cell/organ
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29
Q

What areas of the brain does the neuroendocrine system consist of?

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Pituitary gland
  • Adrenal gland
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30
Q

What is a stressor?

A

Any stimulus which triggers a stress response

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31
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

The brain structure which is responsible for the control of many bodily functions

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32
Q

Which additional brain structure does the hypothalamus link to and why?

A
  • The pituitary gland
  • To modulate the release of hormones
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33
Q

Where in the body is the adrenal gland?

A

Just above the kidney

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34
Q

During the stress response is noradrenaline functioning as a neurotransmitter or a hormone?

A

Noradrenaline functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter

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35
Q

What is the feature of the stress response which ensures that cortisol levels in the blood do not rise indefinitely?

A

Negative feedback loops act on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to dampen their activity

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36
Q

What is the third branch of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The enteric nervous system (ENS)

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37
Q

Why is the enteric nervous system different from the other parts of the peripheral nervous system?

A

There are some reflexes which operate entirely within the gut, without any input from the CNS

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38
Q

What is the gut-brain axis?

A

Biodirectional communication between the brain and the GI system involving the immune system, neurons and the neuroendocrine system

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39
Q

What are the components of the gut-brain axis?

A
  • Vagus nerve
  • Neuroendocrine system
  • Immune system
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40
Q

At the simplest level, what are the three components of the brain?

A
  • Cerebrum
  • Cerebellum
  • Brain stem
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41
Q

Which area of the brain is the largest?

A

The cerebrum

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42
Q

What regions of the brain are contained within the cerebrum?

A
  • Cerebral cortex
  • Subcortical regions
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43
Q

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

A
  • Control of balance
  • Movement
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44
Q

Where is the cerebellum located?

A

To the back of, and below, the cerebrum

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45
Q

Where is the brain stem located?

A

Below the cerebrum

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46
Q

What is the brain stem responsible for?

A

Control of involuntary processes, e.g. heart rate and breathing

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47
Q

What is the frontal lobe responsible for?

A
  • Controlling movement and language
  • Higher level cognitive skills such as reasoning and reasoning and planning
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48
Q

What is the parietal lobe responsible for?

A
  • Processing information about touch
  • Spatial awareness
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49
Q

What is the occipital lobe resonsible for?

A
  • Processing of visual information
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50
Q

What is the temporal lobe responsible for?

A
  • Processing auditory information
  • Speech
  • Memory
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51
Q

Which part of your brain would be responsible for deciding how to respond to the sound of a smoke alarm?

A

Frontal lobe

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52
Q

Which part of the brain is responsible for ascertaining the position of body parts in relation to one another, and using that information to guide movement?

A

Parietal lobe

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53
Q

Which part of the brain is responsible for processing visual information in order to move away from an area of danger?

A

Occipital lobe

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54
Q

Which part of the brain is responsible for processing the sound of a smoke alarm?

A

Temporal lobe

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55
Q

Which area of the brain is the largest?

A

Cerebrum

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56
Q

Which part of the brain is responsible for the complex higher order processing?

A

Cerebrum

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57
Q

Which area of the brain is responsible for the control of balance and movement?

A

Cerebellum

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58
Q

Where is the brain stem located?

A

Where the spinal cord joins the brain

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59
Q

Which part of the brain controls reflexes?

A

Brain stem

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60
Q

What are gyri?

A

The ridges on the surface of the cortex of the brain

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61
Q

What is the purpose of gyri?

A

To increase the surface area of the brain, which allows billions of cells to be contained in a relatively small space

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62
Q

What are sulci?

A

The grooves between the gyri

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63
Q

What is the purpose of the sulci?

A

To provide brain landmarks

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64
Q

Which area of the brain is involved in reasoning, movement and language?

A

Frontal lobe

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65
Q

Which area of the brain deals with processing touch information and spatial awareness?

A

Parietal lobe

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66
Q

What information does the occipital lobe process?

A

Visual information

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67
Q

Memory, understanding speech, and hearing are dealt with by which area of the brain?

A

Temporal lobe

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68
Q

What is the prefrontal cortex important for?

A
  • Reasoning
  • Moderating behaviour
  • Planning
  • Decision making
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69
Q

Planning and execution of voluntary movement is dealt with by which area of the brain?

A

Motor cortex

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70
Q

What is the primary somatosensory cortex?

A

The area of the brain which deals with processing information regarding touch, pain, temperature and body position from the sense organs

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71
Q

Information from the visual system is dealt with by which area of the brain?

A

Primary visual cortex

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72
Q

Information about sounds are dealt with where in the brain?

A

Primary auditory cortex

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73
Q

Where is the prefrontal cortex located within the brain?

A

The most anterior part of the frontal lobe

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74
Q

What is a coronal cut?

A

A vertical cut from the top of the brain to the bottom

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75
Q

What does a coronal cut do?

A

Divides the brain into a front and back portion

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76
Q

Which subdivision of the frontal lobe is important for executive function such as planning complex behaviour, decision-making and moderating behaviour?

A

Prefrontal cortex

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77
Q

Where is the orbitofrontal cortex situated within the brain?

A

At the very front

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78
Q

What is the orbitofrontal cortex important for?

A
  • Reward
  • Emotions
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79
Q

Touch and spatial awareness are dealt with by which part of the brain?

A

Parietal lobe

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80
Q

What type of information is processed by the occipital lobe?

A

Visual

81
Q

What is the temporal lobe also sometimes called?

A

Temporal cortex

82
Q

Memory, hearing and understanding speech is dealt with in which part of the brain?

A

Temporal lobe

83
Q

The release of certain types of hormones into the blood is dealt with in which part of the brain?

A

Pituitary gland

84
Q

The cerebellum is responsible for the control of what?

A

Movement

85
Q

Using medical terminology, what position is the top of the brain described as being in?

A

The dorsal or superior direction

86
Q

Using medical terminology, what position is the bottom of the brain described as being in?

A

The ventral or inferior direction

87
Q

What is the position of the parietal lobe in relation to the temporal lobe?

A

Dorsal or superior to the temporal lobe

88
Q

What direction is the front of the brain said to be in?

A

The rostral or anterior direction

89
Q

What direction is the back of the brain said to be in?

A

The caudal or posterior direction

90
Q

The term ‘lateral’ is used to describe the position of structures of which surface of the brain?

A

Structures towards the outer surface

91
Q

The term ‘medial’ is used to describe the position of structures of which surface of the brain?

A

Structures towards the centre of the brain

92
Q

If you cut down the centre of brain from front to back what type of cut would that be described as?

A

A saggital cut

93
Q

Resolving conflict and dealing with emotions happens in which part of the brain?

A

The cingulate cortex

94
Q

When is the cingulate cortex activated generally?

A

When a person cannot decide a course of action

95
Q

What is the part of the cingulate cortex located near the front of the brain called?

A

The anterior cingulate cortex

96
Q

What are the foldings of the cerebellum known as?

A

Folia

97
Q

What is the corpus callosum?

A

A large bundle of neurons that cross the brain from one side to the other

98
Q

Why is the corpus callosum a whitish colour?

A

Because it is covered in myelin

99
Q

What is the purpose of myelin?

A

To speed up the passage of electrical information

100
Q

Where in the brain are the ventricles located?

A

Underneath the corpus callosum

101
Q

How many ventricles are there in the brain?

A

Four

102
Q

What is the purpose of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

A

To supply the brain with nutrients and remove waste products

103
Q

Which regions of the brain are part of the collection of regions known as the basal ganglia?

A
  • Caudate nucleus
  • Putamen
104
Q

What do the regions of the brain known as the basal ganglia control?

A

Movement

105
Q

What is the hippocampus important for?

A
  • Organisation and retrieval of memories
  • Spatial memory and navigation
106
Q

What type of structure is the hippocampus described as being?

A

A medial temporal lobe structure

107
Q

Why is the hippocampus named so?

A

It comes from the Latin word for “seahorse” as its shape is similar to one

108
Q

The hippocampus and which other region of the brain form the medial temporal lobe memory system?

A

The amygdala

109
Q

Behaviour and emotions, especially the retrieval of unpleasant memories, are controlled by which brain region?

A

The amygdala

110
Q

Which region of the brain is known as the relay centre?

A

The thalamus

111
Q

Much of the sensory information from the body is rooted through which region of the brain?

A

The thalamus

112
Q

What is the thalamus sometimes referred to as?

A

The gateway of the mind

113
Q

What does hypo mean?

A

Below

114
Q

Where is the hypothalamus located in relation to the thalamus?

A

Immediately below it

115
Q

What are the functions of the hypothalamus?

A
  • Control of emotional reactions
  • Eating
  • Drinking
116
Q

Which other region of the brain does the hypothalamus have a direct connection with?

A

The pituitary gland

117
Q

Why does the hypothalamus have a direct connection with the pituitary gland?

A

So that emtoinal reactions can trigger hormonal secretions

118
Q

What are the constituent parts of the brain stem?

A
  • Midbrain
  • Pons
  • Medulla
119
Q

The ventral tegmental area is found within which area of the brain stem?

A

The midbrain

120
Q

Which area within the brain stem is involved with addictions and rewards?

A

The ventral tegmental area

121
Q

Which area of the brain stem is responsible for the control of arousal, waking and sleep?

A

The pons

122
Q

The medulla is involved in which type of processes?

A

Subconscious processes

123
Q

Which subconscious processes is the medulla involved with?

A
  • Breathing
  • Digestion
  • Control of heart rate
  • Blood vessel function
124
Q

Which type of neurons can be found in the ventral tegmental area?

A

Dopaminergic neurons

125
Q

Roughly what percentage of a person’s energy supply does the brain require?

A

About 20%

126
Q

The blood provides energy to the brain in what form?

A

Glucose

127
Q

What type of problem with a blood vessel can cause a stroke?

A

A rupture or blockage

128
Q

What regulates the passage of substances to the brain?

A

The blood-brain barrier

129
Q

What are the cell types which form the blood-brain barrier?

A
  • Astrocytes
  • Brain endothelial cells
  • Pericytes
130
Q

Within the blood-brain barrier, what is the function of the endothelial cells?

A

To form tight junctions in order to form a physical barrier between the brain and any unwanted substances

131
Q

What are glial cells?

A

A type of cell which provides physical and chemical support to neurons and maintains their environment

132
Q

What are astrocytes primarily responsible for?

A

Maintaining the overall environment of the brain

133
Q

What are the different types of astrocytes called?

A
  • Protoplasmic astrocytes
  • Fibrous astrocytes
134
Q

Where are protoplasmic astrocytes generally found?

A

In the grey matter of the brain

135
Q

Where are fibrous astrocytes primarily found?

A

In white matter

136
Q

What are the main functions of astrocytes?

A
  • Providing physical support to neurons
  • Regulating levels of substances such as potassium
  • Helping to form the blood-brain barrier
137
Q

What is the purpose of pericytes?

A

To help control the flow of blood in and out of the body’s tissues

138
Q

The basal membrane surrounds which cells?

A

The endothelial cells

139
Q

What essential components does the blood-brain barrier allow movement of between the blood and the brain?

A
  • Fat-soluble molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide
  • Glucose
  • Amino acids
140
Q

What are important implications of the blood-brain barrier?

A

Integrity can reduce with age, increasing the likelihood of conditions such as alzheimer’s

141
Q

Which neurodegenerative diseases have been found to be linked to dysfunction of astrocytes?

A
  • Huntington’s chorea
  • Parkinson’s disease
  • Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, aka Lou Gherig’s disease)
142
Q

Which feature of the blood-brain barrier is responsible for ensuring that bacteria and viruses cannot cross into the brain tissues?

A

The tight junctions between endothelial cells

143
Q

What is the neurovascular unit?

A

The collection of cells of the brain which help regulate blood supply to the brain

144
Q

What can astrocytes detect?

A

Activity in neurons

145
Q

What can astrocytes alter?

A

The dilation of blood vessels according to the activity of the neurons in a particular region of the brain

146
Q

What are the cells of the neurovascular unit?

A
  • Neurons
  • Astrocytes
  • Endothelial cells
  • Microglial cells
  • Pericytes of the blood
147
Q

Broadly speaking, what is the neurovascular unit composed of?

A

A collection of cells

148
Q

What is the neurovascular unit pivotal in maintaining?

A

Brain homeostasis

149
Q

Put simply, what are the functions CSF provides?

A
  • Cushioning and buoyancy
  • Physical protection
  • Control of pressure in the brain
  • Clearance of waste products
150
Q

In which parts of the brain is CSF produced?

A

The choroid plexus

151
Q

What is the choroid plexus?

A

The region of the ventricles which produces CSF by way of filtration of the blood

152
Q

How can be CSF also be described?

A

As an ultra-filtrate of blood plasma

153
Q

In which area of the ventricles is CSF produced?

A

The choroid plexus

154
Q

What is the function of the choroid plexus?

A

To produce CSF via filtration of the blood

155
Q

What types of electrolytes does CSF contain?

A
  • Potassium ions
  • Sodium ions
  • Chloride ions
  • Bicarbonate ions
156
Q

What is the choroid plexus a network of?

A

Capillaries

157
Q

Sampling CSF can be used to help diagnose which conditions?

A
  • Parksion’s disease
  • Multiple sclerosis
158
Q

Raised levels of certain proteins are commonly found in the CSF of patients of which condition?

A

Alzheimer’s disease

159
Q

What physical hallmark in the brain can be a sign of Alzheimer’s disease?

A

Enlarged ventricles

160
Q

What was the German neurologist Korbinian Brodmann particularly influential in our understanding of?

A

Brain structures

161
Q

In the 1930s, Henri Molaison had which parts of his brain removed in an attempt to treat his epilepsy?

A
  • Hippocampus
  • Amygdala
  • Other regions of the medial prefrontal lobe
162
Q

Due to the areas of his brain which were removed, Henri Molaison was left with severe memory impairments. What does this suggest about the functions of the amygdala and hippocampus?

A

That they are particularly important in the role of memory formation

163
Q

Which regions of the brain are described as the medial temporal lobe memory system?

A
  • Hippocampus
  • Entorhinal cortex
  • Perirhinal cortex
164
Q

In patients with Parkinson’s disease, post-mortem studies of the brain have shown loss of neurons in which region of the brain?

A

Substantia nigra

165
Q

What functions is the substantia nigra involved in?

A
  • Movement
  • Reward
  • Addiction
166
Q

What type of data does brain imaging provide?

A
  • Quantitative
  • Objective
167
Q

What is spatial resolution?

A

A measure of the accuracy with which structures or activities can be localised within the brain and distinguished from one another

168
Q

What is temporal resolution?

A

A measure of the accuracy of recording changes in activity over time

169
Q

What is the default mode network (DMN)?

A

A collection of regions of the brain which are thought to be activated when someone is in ‘resting state’

170
Q

Although we do not know definitively, which brain regions are thought to be involved in the DMN (default mode network)?

A
  • Medial prefrontal cortex
  • Parietal cortex
  • Posterior cingulate cortex
171
Q

When we need to choose which aspects of our environment require our focus, which network in the brain is activated?

A

The salience network

172
Q

What is the salience network?

A

A network of brain regions which are activated when someone is engaged with complex, cognitively demanding tasks

173
Q

What can be complications as a result of defects in the default mode network (DMN)?

A
  • Various mental health conditions
  • Neurodevelopmental conditions including depression, ADHD, ASD and schizophrenia
174
Q

What unusual physical feature was found in Albert Einstein’s brain, post-mortem?

A

A greater than average number of connections between each side

175
Q

What effect has stress been found to have on the hippocampus?

A

Decreasing its size

176
Q

Evidence of a correlation between atrophy of the hippocampus and which condition has been noted?

A

Clinical depression

177
Q

What is the term for a bundle of axons that connect one brain region to another?

A

Fibre tracts

178
Q

Why is white matter white?

A

Because there is myelin present, coating the neuronal fibres

179
Q

What is the name for the fatty substance which surrounds the axons of some neurons and acts to speed up transmission of electrical information?

A

Myelin sheath

180
Q

Why is the myelin sheath important?

A

It speeds up transmission of electrical information

181
Q

Which regions of the brain do association fibres connect?

A

Regions within the same hemisphere

182
Q

Which regions of the brain doe commissural fibres connect?

A

Brain regions across the hemispheres

183
Q

What structures are commissural tracts?

A
  • Corpus callosum
  • Fornix
  • Anterior commissure
184
Q

What is the largest commissural tract?

A

Corpus callosum

185
Q

The frontal lobe is connected with association fibre tracts to which parts of the limbic system?

A
  • Amygdala
  • Hippocampus
186
Q

What is meant by the term brain lateralisation?

A

The tendency of one side of the brain to be dominant for particular tasks

187
Q

In the majority of people, what is the left side of the brain dominant for?

A

Naming objects

188
Q

The production of speech is largely controlled by which side of the brain?

A

The left side

189
Q

Diminished connectivity between hemispheres may be implicated in which conditions?

A
  • ADHD
  • Autism
  • Schizophrenia
190
Q

Diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging can be used for what purpose?

A

Mapping the projection of fibre tracts

191
Q

The map of all the various connections of fibre tracts within the brain is called what?

A

Connectome

192
Q

What is the name for the spaces in the brain which are filled with CSF?

A

Ventricles

193
Q

Which area of the brain is responsible for regulating complex cognitive functions such as empathy, decision making and impulse control?

A

Anterior cingulate cortex

194
Q

The parietal lobe is responsible for what?

A
  • Awareness of body position
  • Processing information about touch
195
Q

What is the name for the part of the brain which is located in the inferior (caudal) region of the brain?

A

The brainstem

196
Q

Involuntary processes such as heart rate and breathing are controlled by which region of the brain?

A

Brainstem

197
Q

What is the proper name for the region of the brain which is sometimes referred to as the “relay centre”?

A

Thalamaus

198
Q

Much of the information from the sensory organs that reaches the brain is processed in whcih area?

A

Thalamus

SK298 - Brain, the mind & mental health (19 decks)

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