Week 2 - Structure and Function Flashcards
1
Q
What did advances in brain imaging allow for?
A
Noninvasive recordings of brain activity in normal, unimpaired humans.
2
Q
Describe the method type, invasiveness, and brain property used for EEG/ERP?
A
method type: recording
invasiveness: non-invasive
Brain property used: electrical
3
Q
Describe the method type, invasiveness, and brain property used for Single-cell recording.
A
method type: recording
invasiveness: invasive
Brain property used: electrical
4
Q
Describe the method type, invasiveness, and brain property used for TMS.
A
method type: stimulation
invasiveness: non-invasive
Brain property used: electromagnetic
5
Q
Describe the method type, invasiveness, and brain property used for MEG.
A
method type: recording
invasiveness: non-invasive
Brain property used: magnetic
6
Q
Describe the method type, invasiveness, and brain property used for PET.
A
method type: recording
invasiveness: invasive
Brain property used: hemodynamic
7
Q
Describe the method type, invasiveness, and brain property used for fMRI.
A
method type: recording
invasiveness: non-invasive
Brain property used: hemodynamic
8
Q
What species have the largest brain?
A
whales
9
Q
what species has the largest brain to body ratio?
A
Ants and treeshrew
10
Q
What species has the most folds in the brain?
A
dolphins
11
Q
What species has the most neurons?
A
Elephants
12
Q
Humans have the highest number of neurons in
the __________ _________?
A
cerebral cortex
13
Q
Humans have more ____________ relative to brain size.
A
white matter (axonal
connections)
14
Q
The ________________ is
disproportionately large in humans, relative to
brain size.
A
prefrontal cortex (PFC)
15
Q
The fundamental units of the nervous system.
A
Neurons
16
Q
The human brain contains approximately what number of neurons?
A
86 billion
17
Q
What can change the number of neurons and connections overtime?
A
learning, experience, and neuroplasticity
18
Q
Who proposed the neuron doctrine?
A
Ramon y Cajal
19
Q
_________ receive, integrate, and transmit
information in the brain
A
Neurons
20
Q
information is transmitted within neurons via
_______________
A
action potentials
21
Q
What are the 2 main cell types in the nervous system?
A
neurons and glial
22
Q
Contains the nucleus,
which acts as the cell’s control center, integrating incoming signals and generating the output signal.
A
Cell Body (soma)
23
Q
Branching fibers with protrusions (spines) that receive synaptic input.
A
Dendrites (input)
24
Q
Tube-like nerve fiber that
transmits signals to other neurons.
A
Axon
25
Allow an axon to transmit signals to multiple
neurons.
Axon collaterals (output)
26
Small branches at the end of the axon where communication occurs.
Terminals (boutons)
27
3 types of neurons
sensory, interneuron/relay, motor
28
carry sensory info to the brain (from the receptors to the CNS)
sensory neurons
29
transmit between sensory and motor neurons (located in the CNS)
interneurons/ relay neurons
30
transmit to muscles and glands (From CNS to effector)
motor neurons
31
The nervous system that made up of the brain and spine
CNS (central nervous system)
32
Projection neurons, primarily excitatory.
Notable for their long apical
dendrite.
Pyramid cells
33
Interneurons—
axons don’t leave the cortex.
Can be excitatory or inhibitory,
but often inhibitory.
Stellate cells
34
cells that support and insulate neurons.
Glial cells
35
speeds up signaling, regulate
extracellular chemicals, and enable neurons to modify connections
Glial cells
36
Where are there equal numbers of glial cells and neurons?
In the CNS
37
Guide neuron migration during embryonic development.
Radial glial cells
38
What are the two main functions of myelin?
1. Insulates axons from each other, preventing signal interference.
2. Speeds up conduction, enabling efficient long-distance communication.
39
If a disease causes demyelination, what are some symptoms?
motor impairments, sensory deficits, cognitive dysfunction, vision problems, fatigue
40
Neurons receive input from
other neurons through the
_________.
dendrites
41
If the inputs are strong enough, what does the neuron do?
an electrical pulse is sent down the axon via electrical transduction.
42
An electrical pulse that is sent down the axon via electrical transduction.
action potential
43
Why are action potentials needed?
Because distance between dendrite and axon terminals too long for passive current conductance.
44
Synaptic transmission of
information from axon
terminal to next neuron is
usually through what?
chemical transduction at the synapse
45
What are the steps of neuronal signaling?
1. Neurons receive input from other neurons through dendrites.
2. neuron fires an action potential down the axon via electrical transduction.
3. Synaptic transmission from the axon to other neuron through chemical transduction at the synapse
46
a brief reversal of the
resting membrane potential
action potential
47
the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a neuron
Membrane potential
48
At rest, the inside of the neuron is more
___________ than the outside.
negative
49
Typical neuron’s resting potential is ________.
-70mV
50
a bilayer of fatty lipid molecules
Neuronal membrane
51
What does the neuronal membrane prevent from crossing?
ions, except at ion channels and pumps
52
an atom with positive or
negative charge
ion
53
Resting membrane potential results from what?
asymmetrical ion distribution
54
What ions are outside of the neuron during resting membrane potential?
Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Cl⁻ outside the
neuron
55
What ions are inside of the neuron during resting membrane potential?
K⁺ inside the neuron
56
Resting potential of -70mV arises from an what?
unequal distribution of ions inside vs. Outside the neuron (extracellular space)
57
specialized structures with a pore that can
open, close or inactivate.
ion channels
58
What are the two ways ions flow across channels?
1. Diffusion (concentration gradients)
2. Electrical gradients
59
Define diffusion of ions
ions move ions
from high -> low concentration to reach
equilibrium
60
Define electrical gradients for ions
ions are attracted by
opposite charges and repelled by like charges.
61
At rest, what happens to ion channels?
Sodium (Na⁺) channels are closed, while
Potassium (K⁺) crosses very slowly
62
consume energy (ATP) to move ions against concentration gradients
ion pumps
63
Critical for preserving the resting membrane potential
Na⁺/K⁺ pump
64
How many K⁺ ions and Na⁺ ions does a Na/K pump move? Also, specify which neurons are going inside/outside.
Moves 2 K⁺ inside for every 3 Na⁺ moved outside
65
ANa⁺/K⁺ pump maintains higher K⁺ concentration
__________ and higher Na⁺ concentration
____________.
Inside, outside
66
How to maintain resting membrane potential?
- More Na⁺, Ca²⁺, and Cl⁻ outside the neuron
- More K⁺ inside the neuron
67
a brief change in the polarity of the electrical charge across the membrane
action potential
68
Signaling from another neuron or a
stimulus can do what?
initiate an action potential.
69
What must happen for an action to have the potential to occur?
Depolarization must exceed the threshold of excitation (typically ~15 mV above resting potential).
70
Neurons either fire completely or not at
all:
all-or-nothing” principle
71
a model of action
potential generation
Hodgkin-Huxley cycle
72
Describe the 1st stage of the Hodgkin-Huxley cycle?
Depolarization of membrane to -55 mV → voltage-gated Na+ channels open
73
Describe the 2nd stage of the Hodgkin-Huxley cycle?
Na+ influx rapidly increases membrane potential, leading to a spike at +40 mV
74
Describe the 3rd stage of the Hodgkin-Huxley cycle?
Repolarization: Na+ channels close, voltage-gated K+ channels open → dominant permeability switches back to K+
75
Describe the 4th stage of the Hodgkin-Huxley cycle?
Efflux of K+ pushes membrane potential below resting level (hyperpolarization/undershoot)
76
Describe the 5th stage of the Hodgkin-Huxley cycle?
Return to resting potential
77
The decision point
for generating an action potential
Axon Hillock
78
If threshold is reached, an action potential fires at full strength; if not, no action potential occurs.
All or none response
79
A signal is actively regenerated along the axon by what?
voltage-gated ion channels
80
What does the regeneration of a signal along the axon prevent?
signal loss over distance.
81
What depolarizes the surrounding membrane after an action potential is generated at the axon hillock?
the influx of positive charge
82
What brings the membrane
just ahead of the action potential to
threshold?
passive current flow
83
What does bringing the membrane ahead of an action potential to threshold result in?
-> voltage-gated channels open
-> action potential propagates
84
What prevents backflow?
Refractory period and
hyperpolarization
85
What does preventing backflow ensure?
the action potential moves only down the axon.
86
What would happen to neural signaling if there was no refractory period?
The refractory period prevents immediate reactivation of voltage-gated Na⁺ channels, ensuring unidirectional propagation.
* Without it, neurons could continuously fire action potentials, leading to excessive excitability (e.g., seizures).
* Signal timing would be disrupted, making it difficult for neurons to encode information properly.
87
What are two factors that affect the speed of action potentials?
1. Axon diameter
2. myelination
88
Larger axon = _______
faster conduction
89
How does myelination affect the speed of an action potential?
it insulates the axon and speeds up transmission
90
Gaps in myelin where voltage-gated ion channels
regenerate the signal
Nodes of Ranvier
91
Action potentials jump from node to node, reducing energy use and increasing
conduction speed
Saltatory Conduction
92
The region of contact where a neuron transfers information to another cell
Synapse
93
The axon’s output synapsing onto another neuron
Presynaptic Neuron
94
The receiving neuron, typically at the dendrites
Postsynaptic Neuron
95
Between neuron transmission is (typically)
__________.
chemical
96
Neurotransmitters are responsible for?
sending nerve signals across the synapse
97
Neurotransmitters diffuse from the __________ _________across the synapse
presynaptic cell
98
Neurotransmitters bind to the __________ ________.
postsynaptic membrane
99
What are the key features of chemical transmission?
* common & numerous
* slower than electrical (1 3ms)
* unidirectional (pre- to post-synaptic)
* flexible, allowing for inhibitory vs. excitatory connections
100
Explain the steps of chemical synaptic transmission.
First, an Action potential propagates to the axon terminal.
1. Action potential opens voltage-gated Ca+ channels
2. Ca+ influx triggers vesicles in presynaptic neuron to bind to the membrane.
3. neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft via exocytosis
4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor molecules in postsynaptic membrane
101
What are the two ways neurotransmitters bind to receptors?
1. Ionotropic receptors
2. Metabotropic Receptors
102
Directly open ion channels, causing fast responses.
Ionotropic Receptors
103
Activate indirect signaling cascades, causing slower but longer-lasting effects.
Metabotropic Receptors
104
Where are neurotransmitters synthesized and stored?
Presynaptic cell
105
Neurotransmitters bind to different postsynaptic receptors; what does this mean?
They can increase or decrease firing depending on the receptor type
106
___________ is the most common excitatory
neurotransmitter in the brain
Glutamate
107
Neurotransmitter binding is temporary. What does this mean?
It must be removed for new signals to transmit.
108
What are the 3 primary clean-up mechanisms for neurotransmitter removal?
1. Degradation
2. Diffusion
3. Reuptake
109
Neurotransmitter moves out of synapse following its concentration gradient.
DIffusion
110
enzymes break down
neurotransmitters into inactive components.
Degradation
111
Transport proteins pull
neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic
neuron (or sometimes postsynaptic cell) for
recycling or storage
Reuptake
112
What effects might a drug that enhances neurotransmitter released at
excitatory synapses have on behavior and cognition?
* Increased excitatory neurotransmitter release would lead to stronger or more frequent postsynaptic activation, which could enhance learning and memory in some contexts.
* However, excessive excitatory activity could lead to overstimulation, possibly causing anxiety, hyperactivity, or even excitotoxicity (neuronal damage due to overactivation).
* This mechanism underlies ADHD stimulants, which increase dopamine and glutamate release, boosting cortical excitability to
enhance attention and working memory
113
What does neurotransmitter binding to the postsynaptic
receptors change?
changes the membrane potential
114
Positive ions flow into the cell
EPSP (Excitatory postsynaptic potential)
115
Neuron more likely to
fire an action potential. It also makes the cell less negative
Depolarization
116
positive ions flow out (or negative ions flow in)
IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)
117
Neuron less likely to fire. Also makes the cell more negative.
Hyperpolarization
118
What does EPSPs cause?
Depolarization
119
What does IPSPs cause?
hyperpolarization
120
Gap junctions physically connect two neurons, allowing direct communication between their cytoplasm
Electrical synaptic transmission
121
Permits fast, synchronized signaling, where electrical changes in one neuron directly affect another.
Electrical synaptic transmission
122
Electrical synaptic transmission is fast but less plastic compared to chemical synapses; what does this mean?
It doesn’t adapt like
chemical synapses.
123
Electrical Synaptic transmission is less common but found in?
circuits requiring precise synchronization.
124
What circuits might electrical synapse signaling be particularly important for?
- reflex circuits
- rhythmic activities
- coordinated motor movements
- sensory processing
125
Explain the entire process of neurons sending signals to one another.
* Cumulative inputs to dendrites drive depolarization of the cell →
* Action potential is triggered at the axon hillock →
* Action potential propagates along the axon via electrical conduction →
* Chemical transmission occurs at the synapse between pre- and postsynaptic neurons →
* Information is passed to the next neuron, continuing the signal
126
Signals that arrive at the
same location in quick
succession.
Temporal summation
127
Signals that arrive at
different dendritic
branches and converge at
the soma.
Spatial summation
128
What can IPSPs add up to?
Temporal and spatial summation
129
“control center," made up of the brain and spinal cord
CNS
130
”courier”, includes the sensory nerves, motor nerves, ganglia (nerve cell bodies). (made up of nerves that branch out from the spinal cord)
PNS
131
What are the 2 main divisions of PNS?
1. Somatic
2. Autonomic
132
* Interact with the external world
* Neurons send messages
between sense periphery and CNS
* Voluntary muscle control
* e.g., kick a ball, raise your arm
Somatic nervous system
133
* Regulating internal world
* Neurons control heart,
intestines, and organs
* Automated, visceral functions
* e.g., digest food, response to seeing something scary /
threat
Autonomic nervous system
134
What type of neurons are input to the CNS?
Afferents
135
What type of neurons are output from the CNS?
Efferents
136
What do afferents do for the somatic (external) nervous system?
Brings sensory input from
skin, muscles, joints to CNS:
touch, pain, temperature,
position
137
What do efferents do for the somatic (external) nervous system?
sends motor commands to
voluntary muscles to contract
and relax
138
What do afferents do for the automatic (internal) nervous system?
Brings sensory input from internal organs to CNS: mechanical stress, inflammation
139
What do efferents do for the automatic (internal) nervous system?
Sends signals to organs to stimulate & regulate function (e.g., heart rate, digestion)
140
What are the two modes of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
141
The balance between the sympathetic and parasympathetic does what?
maintains homeostasis; allowing the body to adapt to changing demands
142
* Activates body to react to threats or opportunities
* Increases respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure
* Redirects blood flow from
digestive organs to muscles
Sympathetic
143
* Shifts body to recovery mode when no urgent demands
* Decreases respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure
* Redirects blood flow to digestive system for energy replenishment
Parasympathetic
144
What are the CNS divisions of an early embryo?
1. Prosencephalon
2. Mesencephalon
3. Rhombencephalon
4. Spinal cord
145
Prosencephalon
forebrain
146
Mesencephalon
midbrain
147
Rhombencephalon
hindbrain
148
What are the CNS divisions of an late embryo?
1. Telencephalon
2. Diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon
4. Metencephalon
5. Myelencephalon
149
What is the prosencephalon composed of?
Telencephalon and diencephalon
150
What is the Rhombencephalon composed of?
Metencephalon and myelencephalon
151
When the brain matures (adult), what is the Mesencephalon composed of?
1. cerebral peduncles
2. midbrain tectum
3. midbrain tegmentum
152
When the brain matures (adult), what is the Telencephalon composed of?
cerebral hemisphere (cerebral cortex, subcortical white matter, basal ganglia, basal forebrain nuclei)
153
When the brain matures (adult), what is the Diencephalon composed of?
Thalamus and hypothalamus
154
When the brain matures (adult), what is the Metencephalon composed of?
pons and cerebellum
155
When the brain matures (adult), what is the Myelencephalon composed of?
Medulla
156
TRUE OF FALSE: all mammals have all vertebrates, but not a cerebral cortex
FALSE; All mammals have a cerebral cortex, but not all vertebrates.
157
In birds and reptiles, the __________ is considered the
the evolutionary correlate of the cortex.
pallium
158
Rostral
front (toward the mouth)
159
Caudal
back (toward the tail)
160
Anterior
Toward the front
161
Posterior
toward the back
162
Dorsal
the top of the brain/ the back of the body
163
Ventral
the bottom of the brain/ toward the belly of the body
164
Superior
toward the top (above)
165
Inferior
toward the bottom
166
Medial
toward the middle
167
Lateral
toward the side
168
Sagittal
cuts the brain to a left and right hemisphere (dorsal/ventral +
anterior-posterior)
169
Axial (horizontal)
cuts the brain to a top and bottom half (anterior-posterior +
lateral-medial)
170
Coronal
cuts the brain into a front and back portion (dorsal/ventral +
lateral-medial)
171
How many layers is the cerebral cortex divided into?
6 layers of nerve cells
172
What is the layer 4 of the cortical layers?
the main input layer
173
The primary motor cortex is a part of what cortical layer?
Underdeveloped layer 4 (minimal sensory input)
174
The primary visual cortex is a part of what cortical layer?
Expanded layer 4 (high sensory input processing)
175
How many cytoarchitectonic areas are there?
52 areas
176
Where is the brainstem located?
beneath the cortex, forming the connection between the spinal cord and higher brain regions
177
What is the function of the brainstem?
* Acts as a communication hub, relaying signals between
the spinal cord and anterior brain regions.
* Controls vital autonomic functions, including heart rate, respiration, and sleep.
* Manages sensory, motor, somatic, and visceral functions.
* Supports complex reflexes, such as the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), which stabilizes vision during head movements.
178
What does damage to the brainstem result in?
* Severe disruption of autonomic functions (heart rate, breathing, consciousness).
* Loss of motor control and coordination.
* Impaired sensory processing.
* Potential coma or life-threatening outcomes.
179
What are the 3 main structures?
1. medulla oblongata
2. pons
3. midbrain
180
Where is the medulla oblongata located?
at the base of the brain right before the spine
181
What part of the brainstem regulates respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure?
medulla oblongata
182
Where is the pons located?
in the middle of the brainstem
183
What part of the brainstem relays signals between the cerebellum and cerebrum?
The pons
184
What part of the brainstem is involved in arousal, sleep, posture, and swallowing?
The pons
185
Where is the midbrain located?
the most superior portion of the brainstem, the top portion of the brainstem
186
What part of the brainstem controls sensation, movement, and visceral processing (e.g., arousal, pain management, locomotion)?
The midbrain
187
Which part(s) of the brain supports cognition but does not perform cognitive functions directly?
medulla and pons
188
What are the key midbrain structures?
1. superior colliculus
2. inferior colliculus
3. periaqueductal gray matter
4. reticular formation
5. locus coeruleus
6. substantia nigra
7. raphe nuclei
189
Function involves Visual
localization and eye movements
Superior colliculus
190
Function involves sound localization and auditory reflexes
Inferior colliculus
191
Function involves supporting complex locomotion
Periaqueductal gray matter
192
Function regulates consciousness via a diffuse neural network
reticular formation
193
Function sends alerting signals via norepinephrine, important for attention
Locus coeruleus
194
Function is the primary dopamine source; critical for movement, cognition, motivation, and reward
Substantia nigra
195
Function is the main serotonin source; supports emotional balance and regulates sleep
Raphe nuclei
196
Which neurotransmitters originate from the brainstem nuclei?
Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine
197
Which neurotransmitters are more broadly distributed?
Glutamate, GABA, acetylcholine
198
Modulate arousal, attention, mood, and
movement
* Shape synaptic plasticity and learning
Neurotransmitter systems
199
Neurotransmitter systems dysfunction contributes to what disorders?
like Parkinson’s, depression, and ADHD
200
Where are 80% of neurons located?
cerebellum
201
Densely folded into folia, organized into lobules. Inputs primarily from brainstem nuclei.
Cerebellum
202
What does the function of the cerebellum include?
* Maintains balance and posture.
* Coordinates voluntary movements with precise timing.
* Involved in learning and refining motor sequences.
* Supports aspects of cognition.
203
What does damage to the cerebellum result in?
* Ataxia (jerky, uncoordinated movements).
* Overshooting or undershooting movement targets.
* Impaired learning of new motor sequences.
204
Describe the structure of the thalamus.
Deep subcortical structure, forming a major hub for
communication with the cerebral cortex and other brain regions.
205
What is the function of the thalamus?
* Channels incoming sensory information to appropriate cortical areas.
* Relays motor signals from the cerebellum and basal ganglia to the motor cortex.
* Processes information rather than just relaying it.
* Higher-order thalamic regions support cognition, attention, consciousness, and awareness.
206
What does damage to the thalamus result in?
* Disruptions in sensory perception (e.g., loss or distortion of
vision, touch, or proprioception).
* Motor deficits due to impaired communication with motor
structures.
* Cognitive and attentional impairments.
* Alterations in consciousness and awareness.
207
How many specialized nuclei are in the thalamus?
30 specialized nuclei, each linked to a specific cortical area and function
208
What are the sensory nuclei in the thalamus?
LGN, MGN, VPL/VPM
209
What are the association nuclei in the thalamus?
Pulvinar, AN(t) and LD, MD
210
What are the motor nuclei in the thalamus?
VL
211
Which part of the thalamus modulates thalamic activity?
Reticular nucleus
212
- Encapsulates thalamus, receives input only from thalamus
- Does not connect directly with cortex
- Exclusively inhibitory, modulating thalamic activity
Reticular nucleus
213
What does the VL do?
deals with motor coordination (relays from cerebellum and basal ganglia)
214
What does the Pulvinar deal with?
attention and visual orienting
215
What does the AN(t) and LD deal with?
memory and emotion
216
What does the MD deal with?
executive functions
217
What does the LGN deal with?
vision (projects to V1)
218
What does the MGN deal with?
audition (projects to A1)
219
What does the VPL/VPM deal with?
somatosensory processing
220
Describe the structure of the basal ganglia.
* Group of nuclei deep in the brain
* Intricately connected with the cortex, especially frontal
regions
* Pathways regulate the initiation and suppression of movement
221
Describe the function of the basal ganglia?
Supports movement, cognition, planning, motivation, and reward
* Controls limb/eye movements, goal-setting, and habit formation
222
What does damage to the basal ganglia result in?
Parkinsons, huntingdons, OCD, schizophrenia, addiction
223
Tremors, rigidity, difficulty initiating movement (dopamine loss)
Parkinson's disease
224
Uncontrolled movements, cognitive decline
Huntington's disease
225
Repetitive behaviors, impaired impulse control
OCD
226
Cognitive/motivational deficits (dopamine dysregulation)
Schizophrenia
227
Compulsive behaviors from altered reward processing
Addiction
228
What are the key structures of the basal ganglia?
Striatum, globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleus, substantia nigra, nucleus accumbens
229
What are the subdivisions of the striatum?
caudate and putamen
230
Deals with motor processes and associative learning as
well as decision making and social behaviors.
Stiatum
231
What are the subdivisions of the globus pallidus?
external and internal
232
* modulates the inhibitory output of the Basal ganglia.
* sends inhibitory signals to the thalamus and regulates voluntary movements
Globus Pallidus
233
Regulates voluntary movement through modulating the output of the globus pallidus
Subthalamic nucleus
234
* produces dopamine
* influences functioning of striatum
Substantia nigra
235
* part of ventral striatum
* key role in reward, reinforcement, and addiction
Nucleus accumbens
236
Describe the structure of the limbic system.
Interconnected network of brain regions including the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and areas within the frontal and temporal lobes
237
What is the function of the limbic system?
* Integrates sensory and physiological signals to regulate emotions and behavior
* Crucial for memory consolidation and linking emotions to stored experiences
* Regulates survival-driven behaviors, such as fight-or-flight responses, feeding, and reproductive functions
238
What does damage to the limbic system result in?
* Memory impairments (hippocampal damage) affecting long-term
memory formation
* Emotional dysregulation (amygdala damage) leading to fear processing deficits or heightened aggression
* Autonomic dysfunction (hypothalamus damage) affecting appetite, stress response, and hormonal balance
239
Describe the function of the Hypothalamus.
- Regulates homeostasis (hunger, thirst, temperature, arousal, sleep).
- Monitors visceral signals, hormones, and blood chemistry to detect imbalances.
- Controls the pituitary gland, regulating hormones for growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
- Triggers compensatory responses to restore balance
240
Describe the function of the amygdala.
* Connects with cortex to shape motivation, goal-setting, and action planning
* Influences autonomic and hormonal systems to regulate internal states
* Processes external sensory input to generate emotional responses
241
What are the two main nuclei of the amygdala?
1. Basolateral
2. Central
242
main nucleus of the amygdala that deals with slower, cognitive emotional processing
Basolateral
243
main nucleus of the amygdala that deal with faster, automatic responses (eg. fear, stress)
Central
244
Where is the hippocampus located?
Located in the medial temporal lobes, positioned between cortex and limbic structures
245
* Receives input from entorhinal cortex and outputs via fornix to mammillary bodies and hypothalamus
* Essential for memory and learning
Hippocampus
246
Encoding and recalling spatial layouts
Spatial navigation
247
Storing experiences linked to time and place
Episodic memory
248
Strengthen memories for long-term storage
Memory consolidation
249
Largest and most complex part of the human brain
- Critical for advanced cognition
- present in all mammals, but highly expanded in humans
Cerebral cortex
250
It holds the visual association area, the visual cortex
Occipital lobe
251
It holds the auditory association areas, auditory cortex, olfactory cortex
Temporal lobe
252
It holds the primary somatosensory cortex, the somatosensory association cortex
Parietal lobe
253
It holds the primary motor cortex, the premotor cortex
The frontal lobe
254
Describe the structure of the prefrontal cortex.
Prefrontal cortex located in the anterior frontal lobe, integrating sensory, limbic, and motor signals. Specialized subregions support different aspects of cognition, emotion, and behavior.
255
Function of the prefrontal cortex
* DLPFC involved in working memory, planning, and problem-solving.
* VLPFC aids inhibitory control and semantic processing.
* OFC regulates reward processing and impulse control.
* MPFC contributes to self-referential thought and emotional regulation.
* ACC monitors attention, conflict, and error detection.
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Damage to the prefrontal cortex results in?
* DLPFC: impaired planning and cognitive inflexibility.
* OFC: to poor impulse control and altered reward processing.
* ACC: affects attention and emotional regulation.
* MPFC: reduces self-awareness and social cognition, contributing to
disorders such as schizophrenia and depression.
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rounded convolutions, the bumps on the surface of the brain
Gyri
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grooves in between gyri
sulci
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Membranes that encase and
protect the brain and spinal cord, providing structural support and cushioning (protective layers of the brain).
Meninges
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What are the 3 layers of the meninges (from inner to outer)?
1. Pia mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Dura mater
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the delicate, inner
layer that closely follows the
brain’s surface.
Pia mater
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the middle, web-like layer filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions the brain.
Arachnoid mater
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the thick, tough
outermost layer, providing a
strong protective barrier.
Dura mater
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The space between the arachnoid and the pia mater; it is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Subarachnoid space
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What are the four interconnected cavities (ventricles)?
2 lateral ventricles, third ventricle, 4th ventricle
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Produces watery fluid called
CSF that cushions brain
and provides nutrients
ventricles
