Chapter 9: Memory Flashcards
(208 cards)
1
Q
what shift in early 20th century influenced the scientific approach to studying memory?
A
shift from introspection to measurable experimental methods
2
Q
who proved that internal processes can be
measured?
A
Hermann Ebbinghaus
3
Q
what was the experimental approach to studying memory?
A
Manipulate independent variables and observe effects on dependent variables.
4
Q
what was the quantitative methods to studying memory?
A
express observations numerically
5
Q
what did the scientific approach to studying memory expand to?
A
studying internal processes beyond sensory-motor
functioning.
6
Q
Describe Ebbinghaus’ experiments.
A
Studied lists of nonsense words to avoid prior
associations.
* Manipulated learning and retrieval variables:
Number of trials during learning.
Length of delay between learning and testing.
* Observed measurable outcomes on memory
performance.
7
Q
Forgetting happens
rapidly at first, then levels off.
A
Forgetting curve
8
Q
Without reinforcement, when does the most forgetting occur?
A
within the first few hours
9
Q
How does repetition improve memory?
A
Repetition improves memory:
Reinforcing information helps retention.
10
Q
what study method is more effective than massed practice (cramming)?
A
Distributed practice (studying over time)
11
Q
acquisition of new information or knowledge.
* Occurs continuously, through single exposures or repeated
experiences.
A
Learning
12
Q
retention and retrieval of learned information.
* The outcome of learning; influences the present based on past experiences
A
Memory
13
Q
What varies in duration?
A
memory
14
Q
Is memory unitary?
A
NOT unitary, includes several distinct types of memory
15
Q
what changes the brain in regards to memories?
A
The brain changes through experience to learn and form new memories.
16
Q
At the neuronal level, __________________ strengthen or weaken based on previous activity.
A
synaptic connections
17
Q
who hypothesized about experience-dependent plasticity as the basis for memory?
A
Donald Hebb
18
Q
If a presynaptic cell (A) consistently
drives a postsynaptic cell (B), their
connection is ______________.
A
strengthened (potentiation)
19
Q
If presynaptic cell A fails to drive postsynaptic cell B, the connection is
_____________.
A
weakened (depression)
20
Q
What is the hebbian rule learning?
A
“Neurons that
fire together, wire together.”
21
Q
what did Hebb’s hypothesis initially lack?
A
initially lacked direct experimental evidence
22
Q
Bliss & Lomo provided the first demonstration of
______________________.
A
experience-dependent plasticity
23
Q
Persistent strengthening of synapses based on prior activity.
A
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
24
Q
What did Bliss and Lomo discover in a rabbit hippocampus?
A
In the rabbit hippocampus, stimulating input
fibers increased postsynaptic electrical
responses for up to 10 hours
25
Critical for early stages of LTP. Found in many
postsynaptic membranes; binds glutamate, the major excitatory neurotransmitter
NMDA receptor
26
Normally blocked by a magnesium ion.
Repeated depolarization removes the block, allowing calcium to
enter
voltage-dependent
27
Calcium entry activates _______________, promoting
synaptic strengthening.
secondary messengers
28
Encodes simultaneous activation of
presynaptic and postsynaptic cells, essential for learning.
coincidence detector
29
Lack of response to repeated input leads to _____________ instead of potentiation.
long-term
depression (LTD)
30
Thousands of new neurons are formed in the hippocampus daily, across species and ages.
Neurogenesis
31
___________ have greater plasticity, potentially supporting new connections.
Younger neurons
32
New cells may help establish _____________ among
existing neurons
connections
33
neurogenesis in the _____________ could play a key
role in storing information
hippocampus
34
The architecture of _______________ is a potential structural basis for long-term information storage in the nervous system
dendritic spines
35
_______________ grow and change shape within hours in young animals.
Dendritic spines
36
What happens to dendritic spines in adult animals?
In adults, these spines become less plastic and more stable.
37
what plays an essential role in memory storage?
architecture of dendritic spines
38
What are the 3 major processing stages of learning and memory?
Encoding, storage, retrieval
39
The initial phase where incoming information is
transformed into a storable format.
Encoding
40
what are the 2 steps of encoding?
acquisition and consolidation
41
Certain stimuli are captured and
processed by short-term memory
Acquisition
42
Memory is stabilized into long-term storage
Consolidation
43
Preservation of information in memory,
categorized into different types (e.g., short-term, long-term).
Storage
44
The process of accessing stored memory,
influenced by factors such as memory strength and context
during encoding and retrieval.
Retrieval
45
Different memory systems can be understood in terms of....
1. the qualities or characteristics of the memories formed including duration, capacity, level of consciousness, and mechanisms of information loss.
2. the brain regions that support them
46
Participants hear a list of items and recall
as many as possible in any order.
List learning task (serial position task)
47
Better recall for items at
the beginning of the list, reflecting long-
term memory.
Primacy effect
48
Better recall for items at
the end of the list, reflecting short-term
memory.
recency effect
49
what examples of learning and retrieval variables influence memory performance?
delay length, presentation rate, study trials
50
What eliminates the recency effect in the list learning task?
Distraction after the end of the list
51
Disrupts the participant’s ability to maintain the final items in short- term memory
Distraction after the end of the list
52
what reduces the primacy effect in the list learning task?
Speeding up the word
presentation rate
53
what does the faster rate of the word presentation do?
Faster rate provides less time to encode items into long-term memory.
54
manipulating which two variables has different effects on performance?
1. Speeding up the word
presentation rate
2. Distractions after the end of the list
55
Describe the visual report task
Participants are briefly shown a matrix of letters.
* When asked to recall all the letters, subjects typically remember 4 to 5 items.
56
Describe the partial report task
Participants are briefly presented with a
matrix of letters.
* After the grid is removed, a tone indicates which row participants should recall.
* When cued for a specific row, participants can usually report 3 or 4 letters.
* Participants are not pre-informed about which row will be tested
57
in the partial report task, When asked to recall all letters,
participants can usually report ________
items.
4-5
58
in the partial report task, When cued to report a single line, participants can typically recall _________
letters
3-4
59
When asked to recall all letters, participants can usually report 4-5 items.
* When cued to report a single line, participants can typically recall 3-4 letters.
What does this suggest?
This suggests that 9-12 letters are “available” for report in sensory memory
60
Brief storage of information from sensory inputs (e.g., visual, auditory) immediately following a stimulus.
Sensory memory
61
Very brief, lasting a few hundred milliseconds to a few seconds.
Duration of sensory memory
62
High, capable of holding a large amount of sensory
information.
Capacity of sensory memory
63
Operates outside of conscious awareness.
sensory memory is automatic
64
what is the capacity of sensory memory?
9-12 letters
65
what is the capacity of short-term memory?
4-5 letters
66
Temporary storage of information undergoing active manipulation or rehearsal
Short-term memory (STM)
67
Typically lasts a few seconds to a minute.
Duration of short-term memory
68
Limited, holding a small amount of information (e.g., 7±2 items)
Capacity of short term memory
69
Involves active manipulation and processing of information.
short-term memory is conscious
70
Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model) in regards to memory
Memory as a Serial Process: Information moves from
sensory memory to short-term memory via attention and into long-term memory through rehearsal and encoding.
71
Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model) in regards to retrieval
Control Processes in Retrieval: Memory retrieval involves cues that bring information back into short-term memory for conscious processing.
72
what was the impact of the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model)?
Introduced discrete memory stages with distinct characteristics and emphasized sequential information processing
73
what were some challenges to the Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-store Model (Modal Model)?
Research questions whether short-term memory is always necessary for long-term encoding.
74
describe patient KF
* Damage to the left perisylvian cortex in
the parietal lobe led to severe short-term
memory impairment.
* Struggled to retain recently presented
information, forgetting within seconds.
* Despite this, long-term memory, including episodic, semantic, and procedural, remained intact
75
what does patient KF suggest about short-term memory?
Suggests short-term memory may not be
essential for encoding long-term memories, challenging the strict serial
model.
76
Describe Patient EE
* Deficit following tumor in the left angular
gyrus and inferior parietal cortex.
* Severe short-term memory impairment for
abstract verbal material and difficulty transposing numbers.
* Intact calculation abilities and other numerical processing tasks.
* Visuospatial short-term memory and nonverbal long-term memory were normal.
77
Working memory is closely related to, but not synonymous with, ______________.
short-term memory
78
how memory is actively utilized in the planning and execution of actions
Working memory
79
what evidence is there for working memory?
Supported by evidence showing that a single, unified short-term memory system is insufficient to explain performance on various temporary memory tasks.
80
what is caused by a tumor in the left angular gyrus
and inferior parietal cortex?
short-term memory impairments
81
what severe short-term memory impairments occur due to a tumor in the left angular gyrus and inferior parietal cortex?
Severe short-term memory impairment for
abstract verbal material and difficulty
transposing numbers
82
With a tumor in the left angular gyrus and inferior parietal cortex, what stays intact/normal?
* Intact calculation abilities and other number
processing tasks.
* Visuospatial short-term memory and
nonverbal long-term memory were normal.
83
Working memory expands on ________________, emphasizing processes involved in retaining information over seconds to minutes.
short-term memory
84
working memory holds content from where?
recent sensory inputs
85
working memory retrieves content from where?
long-term memory
86
what model was working memory characterized by?
Baddeley and hitch model
87
describe the Baddeley and Hitch model
- Phonological loop for verbal information.
- Visuospatial sketchpad for visual and spatial data.
- Central executive manages attention and manipulates information.
- Episodic buffer integrates sensory information.
88
In regards to working memory, what engages Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas in the left hemisphere?
verbal and acoustic info
89
In regards to working memory, what activates regions in the right hemisphere?
visuospatial information
90
Crucial for executive control, including
decision-making, maintaining/manipulating stored information, managing high cognitive loads, and updating information
DLPFC
91
Acts as an attention controller, evaluating the
need for adjustments and adaptations based on task
demands
ACC
92
Functions as a processing workspace for sensory or perceptual information.
Parietal cortex
93
describe the delayed match to sample task?
an individual sees a sample stimulus and, after a
delay, must select the matching option.
- Successful performance requires holding
stimulus information in working memory.
94
Neurons in the inferior temporal (IT) cortex
do what, even without a
stimulus present?
remain active during the delay
95
Since Neurons in the inferior temporal (IT) cortex remain active during the delay, even without a stimulus present, what does this suggest?
This delay activity is stimulus-specific,
suggesting IT cortex maintains object information in working memory
96
How is delay activity progressively attenuated?
by intervening distracter stimuli
97
what is the parietal cortex delay activity for?
stimulus location
98
Prefrontal activity reflects memory for both ______________.
object attributes and location
99
Delay activity of neurons in the ____________ is not attenuated by
intervening stimuli
prefrontal cortex
100
Delay activity of neurons in the prefrontal cortex is not attenuated by
intervening stimuli, what does this suggest?
This suggests that the PFC tracks behavioral goals, allowing for sustained focus despite distractions.
101
Supports learning and remembering skills and
habits, which become automatic with practice
procedural memory
102
Involves motor and cognitive tasks that
improve with repetition (e.g., riding a bike,
playing an instrument).
procedural memory
103
with procedural memory, performance improvement is seen through what?
reduced errors and faster reaction times over time
104
what parts of the brain play key roles in procedural memory formation and consolidation?
Cerebellum, basal ganglia, and motor cortex
105
Involves learning and recognizing perceptual patterns without conscious awareness.
perceptual memory
106
Developed through repeated exposure to visual, auditory, or tactile stimuli
perceptual memory
107
Affects reaction time and accuracy in tasks such as
priming, perceptual learning, and sensory adaptation.
perceptual memory
108
what is an example of perceptual memory?
Recognizing objects from incomplete outlines improves with prior exposure
109
____________ is crucial for maintaining these
memories—impairment seen with occipital lobe
damage.
Sensory cortex
110
implicit long-term memory that forms associations between stimuli and responses
without conscious awareness
classical conditioning
111
When does classical conditioning develop?
Develops when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually triggering a conditioned response
112
what shapes reflexive behaviors, including fear
conditioning, eyeblink responses, and taste
aversion?
classical conditioning
113
which part of the brain is critical for storing and maintaining classical conditioned long-term memories?
amygdala (emotion-based learning) and cerebellum (motor learning)
114
Implicit memory system where behaviors are
shaped by their outcomes.
Operant conditioning
115
Behaviors followed by rewards are reinforced,
while those followed by negative outcomes
decrease in frequency (BF Skinner: behaviors
as learned responses).
operant conditioning
116
how does operant conditioning learning occur?
learning occurs without conscious awareness and guides habit formation
117
which parts of the brain play a key role in linking actions with consequences and reinforcing behaviors?
Basal ganglia and associated structures
118
A form of learning where repeated exposure to a
stimulus reduces the response over time
Habituation
119
what does habituation result from?
CNS changes, not muscle fatigue or
sensory adaptation.
120
what does habituation allow organisms to do?
filter out irrelevant, non-
threatening stimuli, conserving attention for more important information
121
what type of studies is habituation frequently used in?
frequently used in
infant studies to assess cognitive development.
122
Stores facts and concepts about the world, often
called general knowledge
Semantic Memory
123
Consciously accessible, allowing deliberate recall
and articulation
Semantic Memory
124
how is semantic memory organized?
hierarchically, with broad categories at
the top and specific details at lower levels
125
what does semantic memory lack?
lacks contextual details; you know a fact but not
when or where you learned it
126
Which brain areas play a role in forming and retrieving semantic memories?
The medial temporal lobe, particularly the
hippocampus
127
Stores autobiographical events, including where, when, and with whom they occurred.
Episodic memory
128
Consciously accessible, allowing individuals to mentally re-experience past events
Episodic Memory
129
How is episodic memory organized?
chronologically, reflecting the sequence of life
experiences
130
Which brain areas are essential for encoding and retrieving episodic memories?
The medial temporal lobe, particularly the hippocampus
131
Endel Tulving’s concept of “mental time travel” describes what?
how
we relive past experiences in our minds.
132
results from brain injury, trauma, or neurodegenerative diseases, leading to significant memory loss. Some individuals may recover memories, while others experience permanent deficits.
Amnesia
133
refers to the inability to
form new memories after the onset of amnesia.
Most cases involve anterograde deficits.
Anterograde amnesia
134
involves the inability to
recall past events from before the injury or
trauma. Memory loss may be temporary or
permanent.
Retrograde amnesia
135
states that recent memories are more
vulnerable to loss than older ones, suggesting
older memories are more resilient; Older memories are less impaired
Ribot's law
136
Listen to a string of digits,
repeat them back
Digit span
137
what do amnesiac fail at?
recalling longer
sequences of numbers
138
describe patient HM's memory
- Bilateral resection of medial temporal lobes (MTL) and hippocampus to treat epilepsy resulted in his inability to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia)
- Despite this, he retained access to older memories,
though he experienced partial retrograde amnesia,
particularly for events in the years leading up to surgery
139
what is Patient HM's situation evidence for?
Strong evidence that the medial temporal lobes are
crucial for acquiring and retrieving declarative
memories.
140
Describe Patient HM's IQ/ cognitive abilities
* Q remained in the average range (103), with intact
perception and language comprehension.
* Quiet and well-mannered, able to engage in sophisticated conversation and understand jokes.
* Short-term memory was intact—he could repeat back recently heard information.
* Once the conversation ended, he immediately forgot it due to his inability to form new episodic memories.
* He could acquire some new semantic knowledge, but only if linked to preoperative mental representations.
141
Describe Patient HM's non-declarative learning
* Could learn and improve on non-declarative tasks such as mirror drawing.
* Showed improvement in accuracy on the first day and retained learning across multiple days.
* Continued to improve over time despite having no memory of previous practice.
* Exhibited priming effects in visual recognition tasks using partial outlines.
142
Describe the case of Clive Wearing
* Extensive damage to hippocampus and surrounding structures.
* Unable to form new long-term memories (anterograde amnesia).
* Retained fragments of past life, including identity,
musical ability, and recognition of wife (retrograde amnesia).
* Could play piano and conduct music but forgot
immediately after.
* Severe memory loss resulted in a near-continuous state of reawakening, living in “moment-to-moment”
consciousness.
143
Caused by thiamine deficiency, often due to
chronic alcoholism or malnutrition.
* Confusion, disorientation, and confabulation,
fabricating memories to fill in gaps
Korsakoff’s Syndrome
144
what does Korsakoff's syndrome lead to?
Leads to both anterograde and retrograde
amnesia.
145
WIth Korsakoff's syndrome, which type of amnesia is more severe?
Retrograde amnesia is typically more severe than
in medial temporal lobe or dorsomedial thalamus
lesions
146
Describe Patient PZ
* Developed Korsakoff’s amnesia, leading to
severe retrograde memory loss.
* Had written an autobiography before
amnesia onset, providing a reliable record of his past.
* Showed better recall for early life events
than for more recent pre-amnesia memories.
* Demonstrated a clear temporal gradient in
memory loss, consistent with Ribot’s law.
147
a progressive, irreversible
neurological disorder and the most common cause of
dementia.
* Plaques and tangles accumulate in the hippocampus,
leading to widespread neuronal death
Alzheimer’s disease
148
what do the early stages of Alzheimer's involve difficulty with?
difficulty recalling recent events, conversations, or names
149
As Alzheimer's disease progresses, memory loss extends to what?
recognizing familiar people and places
150
In Alzheimer's disease, Disruptions between the hippocampus and
prefrontal cortex impair cognitive function and
reduce _______________________-.
mind-wandering capacity
151
Describe Patient S
* ‘Patient S’ had an extraordinary memory, retaining vast amounts of information for years.
* Despite average IQ, his memory was inflexible, struggling to prioritize information and
extract meaning.
* He had difficulty following narratives, interpreting metaphors, and recognizing faces due
to constantly changing details.
* His inability to forget impaired his ability to generalize
152
As Patient S' inability to forget impaired his ability to generalize, what does this highlight?
that forgetting is
essential for efficient memory.
153
Describe Patient MS
* Right occipital lobe removed due to epilepsy.
* Above-average intelligence and intact
recall/recognition memory for words, preserving explicit memory functions.
* Impaired visual priming: did not show the typical improvement in identifying previously studied words compared to new words
154
What does Patient MS' study illustrate?
Illustrates a double dissociation with other amnesia cases, suggesting explicit recognition and implicit visual priming rely on distinct neural systems
155
What falls under declarative memory (explicit memory)?
events (episodic memory)
facts (semantic memory)
156
What falls under nondeclarative memory (implicit memory)?
procedural memory
perceptual representation system
classical conditioning
nonassociative learning (operant conditioning)
157
deals with specific personal experiences from a particular time and place
events (episodic memory)
158
deals with world knowledge, object knowledge, language knowledge, conceptual priming
facts (semantic memory)
159
what types of memory uses the medial temporal lobe, middle diencephalon, and neocortex?
declarative memory (episodic and semantic memory)
160
deals with skills (motor and cognitive)
procedural memory
161
what parts of the brain are used for procedural memory?
Basal ganglia and skeletal muscle
162
deals with perceptual priming
perceptual representation system
163
deals with conditioned responses between two
classical conditioning
164
what brain area works for classical conditioning?
cerebellum
165
what brain area works for the perceptual representation system?
perceptual and association neocortex
166
deals with habituation and sensitization
Nonassociative learning
167
what part of the brain works for nonassociative learning?
reflex pathways
168
Receives highly processed
information from a variety of cortical regions
Declarative memory system
169
Binds information together from the multiple, geographically
separate cortical regions
Declarative memory
170
Returns projections to
cortical regions
Declarative memory systems
171
Likely controls a process of
reorganization in the cortex
Declarative memory systems
172
Describe the stages of memory
1. incoming sensory info
2. encoding (info is converted for storage)
3. Storage (info is retained in memory)
4. Retrieval (info is retrieved from memory)
173
Brain activity during word
ist encoding was examined using neuroimaging. Words that were later correctly recollected activated which parts of the brain during encoding?
hippocampus, posterior
parahippocampal cortex, and frontal cortex
174
Higher hippocampal activity at encoding
correlated with _______________________, suggesting stronger encoding.
better memory
performance at retrieval
175
Describe hippocampus study for episodic memory retrieval
* Subjects studied word lists before scanning and were later tested inside the
scanner.
* Participants indicated whether they specifically remembered seeing a word or if it simply felt familiar.
176
in the study of the hippocampus for episodic memory retrieval, what was hippocampal activation selective for?
Hippocampal activation was selective for correctly recollected words
177
Since Hippocampal activation was selective for
correctly recollected words, what does this suggest?
suggests a role in episodic recall rather than familiarity-based recognition.
178
what did the encoding experiment also examine?
familiarity-based recognition
179
___________ cortex was active when recognition was based on familiarity, but the hippocampus was not.
Perirhinal
180
DESCRIBE the double dissociation in the medial temporal lobe for encoding different forms of memory
1. Perirhinal cortex supports familiarity-based
recognition memory.
2. Hippocampus and posterior parahippocampal cortex support recognition
based on the recollection of source (episodic) info.
181
Information about an item’s features (“what” it is)
comes from ______________ and is processed in
the _______________.
association cortex; perirhinal cortex
182
Information about an item’s location (“where” it
is) is processed in the more _________________ cortex.
posterior parahippocampal
183
The _____________ binds representations of items
with their contextual information.
hippocampus
184
* hub in entorhinal/perirhinal
* emotion & memory regulation
* familiarity, recognition
Anterior Temporal (AT)
185
* hub in parahippocampal
* internally-directed thought
* Recollection (episodic)
* memory for scenes, spatial layouts
Posterior Medial (PM)
186
what do lesion studies in rodents provide evidence for?
hippocampal involvement in spatial memory.
187
describe the rat experiment for the hippocampus involvement in spatial memory
* Rats performing a radial arm maze task learn to explore each arm for food rewards. If only certain arms contain food, they adapt by selectively exploring rewarded arms.
* Rats with hippocampal lesions fail to learn this pattern, repeatedly re-entering arms they’ve already checked, indicating impaired spatial memory.
188
what does the rat experiment for spatial memory suggest?
These findings suggest the hippocampus is critical for
guiding spatial exploration and memory-based
navigation
189
Place cells in the hippocampus and grid
cells in the adjacent entorhinal cortex
support _________________.
spatial navigation
190
cells that fire in specific locations within
an environment, representing discrete
places in a cognitive map
Place cells
191
cells that fire at periodic locations, forming a grid-like pattern that may serve
as an internal coordinate system for navigation.
Grid cells
192
The _____________ is strongly engaged in spatial navigation tasks
hippocampus
193
__________________ is larger in taxi drivers with extensive navigation experience
Posterior hippocampus
194
the effect of taxi drivers having a larger posterior hippocampus is specific to?
spatial tasks—other experts, like physicians, do not show the same hippocampal growth.
195
The hippocampus is essential for all forms of declarative memory, including both
episodic and semantic memory. It supports both vivid recollection of events and the ability to recognize
something as familiar.
Declarative theory
196
Each time a memory is retrieved, a new hippocampal trace is created. Over
time, repeated retrieval strengthens and multiplies these traces, making older memories more resistant
to damage
Multiple-Trace theory
197
Memory retrieval relies on two distinct processes: familiarity, which provides a sense of knowing without detailed recollection, and recollection, which retrieves specific details and context of an event.
Dual-process theory
198
The hippocampus forms and stores relationships between different elements of an experience, allowing for flexible memory retrieval and the integration of disparate pieces of knowledge.
Relational theory
199
The hippocampus constructs and maintains spatial representations of the environment, enabling navigation and spatial memory by encoding the relationships between
landmarks and locations.
Cognitive map theory
200
The process of stabilizing memories for long-term storage.
Memory consolidation
201
how long can memory consolidation take?
can take days, weeks, or even years.
202
which brain structures are crucial or early
consolidation of episodic and semantic memories?
MTL structures, including the hippocampus
203
what happens to memories over time?
memories are gradually
reorganized in the cortex, becoming
less dependent on the hippocampus.
204
describe the neural basis for consolidation
- Activated regions
during an event or
episode.
- Hippocampus binds
information input
from across cortex.
- During retrieval, a cue
can facilitate retrieval of
a memory from the
hippocampus.
- Cues can come from
across cortex
- Repeated reactivation of
memory creates direct
connections between
cortex areas and
(eventually) no longer
requires hippocampus.
205
The representations of events are initially distributed across the cortex but
come together in the ________________, where the hippocampus binds them
medial temporal lobe
206
Repeated interactions between the hippocampus and neocortex gradually
transfer retrieval ability to _________________.
cortical structures
207
Over time, reactivation strengthens direct _________________, allowing
memories to persist without hippocampal involvement.
cortical connections
208
_____________ memories stabilize through cycles of activation, consolidation,
and reconsolidation
Long-term
