Week 3 Flashcards
(174 cards)
1
Q
What are 3 layers of Mucosa
A
Epithelium, lamina propia, muscularis Mucosae
2
Q
In the epithelium layer of mucosa, there are two layers:
- _______ (in mouth, esophagus & anus) = tough.
- _______ in the rest = secretes enzymes and absorbs nutrients
- specialized cells (____) secrete mucus onto cell surfaces
_______ cells—secrete hormones controlling organ function
A
- Stratified Squamous
- Simple Columnar
- Goblet
- Enteroendocrine
3
Q
The Lamina Propia layer of Mucosa contains:
A
Layer of loose connective tissue – contains BV and lymphatic tissue (MALT) and IgA’s
4
Q
The Muscularis mucosae layer of Mucosa contains:
Thin layer of ____ muscle – causes folds to form in mucosal layer – increases local movements to ensure that all ______ cells are fully exposed to contents of GI tract
A
- smooth
2. absorptive
5
Q
The Submucosa:
Loose _____ tissue – containing BV, glands lymphatic tissue, and network of neurons
• Submucosal plexus (_____ plexus)— • Controls secretions in mucosal epithelium
A
- Connective
2. Meissner’s
6
Q
The muscularis contains 3 layers:
A
Skeletal, Smooth, Myenteric Plexus (Auerbach’s plexus)
7
Q
Layers of Muscularis:
• Skeletal muscle = voluntary control – in mouth, pharynx , upper esophagus and anus – control over _________
• Smooth muscle = involuntary control – made of _____ and mixes, crushes & propels food along by peristalsis
• Myenteric Plexus (Auerbach’s plexus) – both parasympathetic & sympathetic innervation of circular and longitudinal ____ muscle layers
A
- swallowing and defecation
- inner circular fibers & outer longitudinal fibers
- smooth
8
Q
Serosa (visceral peritoneum):
• Thin layer of loose CT covered by simple ____ epithelium (mesothelium)
• Covers all organs and walls of cavities not open to the outside of the body
• Also sometimes called the _____ (when the organ is bound to other structures)
A
- Squamous
2. Adventitia
9
Q
The ____ is a straight, collapsible, tube. ____ waves move food though the tube. Mucous glands are scattered throughout the submucosa.
Contains _______ (LES)
A
- esophagus
- Peristalic
- Loweresophageal sphincter
10
Q
The stomach stretches due to?
A
rugae
11
Q
Parts of stomach: cardia, _____, body, pylorus. It empties as small squirts of ____ and leaves the stomach through the pyloric valve.
A
- fundus
2. chyme
12
Q
The stomach acidifies and converts the bolus into a thick, viscous fluid known as _____.
A
chyme
13
Q
In which parts of the stomach can you find rugae?
A
Rugae are folds of the mucosa and submucosa.
14
Q
The stomach has many gastric pits which are shallow in the cardia and fundus and deepest in the _____. Glands in the cardia and pylorus are more ____ tubular vs. body/ fundus.
A
- pylorus
2. COILED
15
Q
3 layers of the muscularis externa:
• Inner oblique layer
• Middle circular layer that forms _______
• Outer _______
A
- the pyloric sphincter
2. longitudinal layer
16
Q
Parietal cells secrete _______, important for vitamin ___ absorption
A
- hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
2. B12
17
Q
Parietal and chief cells of stomach are mostly found in the ?
A
They are found mostly in the body and fundus
18
Q
What do cheif cells of the stomach secrete?
A
pepsinogen and gastric lipase
19
Q
G cells of the stomach are found in the ____ and secrete ____
A
- Pylorus
2. the hormone: gastrin
20
Q
Parietal Cells of the stomach produce:
_______ (gives stomach its acid environment) & converts pepsinogen made from ____ to pepsin (the active form of the enzyme)
_______ absorption of vitamin B12 for RBC production
A
- Hydrochloric acid
- Chief cells
- Intrinsic factor
21
Q
Gastrin hormone (g cell) – “get it out of here”
• release more gastric juice (HCl from ___ cell)
• increase gastric motility
• relax ____ sphincter
• constrict ____ sphincter preventing entry
A
- Parietal
- pyloric
- esophageal
22
Q
Mucous cells – form a protective barrier to prevent digestion of stomach wall. Surface cells are very ___ and secrete _____ as well.
A
- alkaline
2. lysozyme
23
Q
Chief cells – secrete _____ (inactive enzyme) & gastric ___
A
- pepsinogen
2. lipase
24
Q
Gastric pits in the fundus are called ____
A
foveolus; in a faveolus a parietal cell is oxyntic and cheif cells are peptic
25
The small intestines are ____ long
Major role in ______
3 parts:
1. 20 feet
2. absorption
3. duodenum, jejunum, ilium
26
There are three parts to the small intestine, which is the shortest? longest?
The duodenum is 10 inches (shortest)
Next is jejunum 8 feet
Finally the ileum is 12 feet (longest)
27
What marks the end of the small intestine?
The iliocecal valve
28
3 important modifications in small intestine that increase surface area for absorption
plicae circularis, villi, and microvilli
29
In the small intestine, ______ are permanent ½ inch tall folds of the mucosa and submucosa. Increases surface area 2 to 3-fold
(It can not stretch out like rugae in stomach)
Plicae circularis
30
In the small intestine, ______ are permanent evaginations that contains vascular capillaries and ___ (lymphatic capillaries) in the lamina propria. Increases surface area 10-fold
1. Villi
| 2. Lacteals
31
In the small intestine, ______ are cell surface feature of the epithelial cells that contain actin filaments – known as ______
(Increase surface area 20-fold)
1. Microvilli
| 2. Brush border
32
Mechanical breakdown of small intestine includes:
•______: localized contractions that slosh chyme back & forth, mixing it with digestive juices to bring food into contact w/ mucosa
• _____: begins after most of a meal has been absorbed; pushes food along.
• Chyme remains in the small intestine for 3-5 hours
1. Segmentation
| 2. Peristalsis
33
Cells of intestinal glands:
1) Digests and absorbs nutrients
2) Secretes mucous
3) Secretes: secretin, cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptide
4) Regenerative cell
5) Secretes lysozyme, capable of phagocytosis
1) Absorptive cell
2) Goblet cell
3) Enteroendocrine
4) No name on slide
5) Paneth cells
34
Histology of large intestine:
1) Muscular layer – ?
2) ____ -- visceral peritoneum
3) ____ – contains large amounts of lymphatic tissue
1) internal circular layer is normal; outer longitudinal muscle: taeniae coli, haustra (pouches) formed, epiploic appendages (growths from taeniae coli)
2) Serosa
3) Appendix
35
What are six main functions of the liver? Hint:
1) sugar
2) LDL, HDL, VLDL
3) albumin, alpha beta globulins, plasma enzymes, glycoproteins, prothrombin
4) ETOH & barbiturates degraded by oxidation hydroxylation
5) RBC waste product billirubin secreted in bile
6) bile synthesized - emulsifies fat in intestines
1) Glucose regulation
2) regulation of blood lipid levels Lipoprotein synthesis
3) Synthesis of plasma proteins
4) Detoxification
5) Excretion (blood filtering). RBC is phagocytosed by Kupffer cells.
6) Exocrine secretion
36
Describe how the liver regulates glucose
When glucose enters the blood stream, insulin is released from the pancreas initiating glycogenesis to create glycogen which is stored in liver. If there is too little glucose then the pancreas produces glucagon. Glucagon (along with epinephrine) initiate glycogenolysis to produce more glucose from liver storages
37
Pancreatic secretions:
1) Endo + Exo (70%)
2) DNAse, RNAse
3) Hydrolyse starch and glycogen
4) triglycerides -> fatty acids and glycerol
1) Endopeptides - trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastases
Exopeptidases - carboxypeptidases
trypsinogen-> enterkinase (duct walls) -> trypsin -> activates all other precursors
2) nucleases
3) pancreatic amylase
4) pancreatic lipase
38
Regulation of pancreatic secretion (1 of 4):
1) ___: food -> release of stomach acid into duodenum -> release of ___ into blood by duodenal cells -> secretion of bicarbonate by ____ cells -> alkaline pH (ideal for pancreatic enzymes)
1) Secretin; Secretin; Duct cells
39
Regulation of pancreatic secretion (2 of 4):
2)___/cholecystokinen: amino acids and fats in intestine -> release of _____ by intestinal mucosa into blood -> release of pancreatic enzymes into intestine
2) Pancreozymin; pancreozymin
40
Regulation of pancreatic secretion (3 of 4):
| 3) ___: food -> __ secretion by stomach mucosa -> release of pancreatic enzymes into intestine
3) gastrin; gastrin
41
Regulation of pancreatic secretion (4 of 4):
| 4) ___ = Vagus nerve
4) Autonomic innervation
42
Respiratory epithelium:
1) ___ ciliated __ epithelium nasal cavity to bronchi
2) ___ - filled in their apical portions with granules of mucin glycoproteins.
* The lamina propria of resp. epthel. is vascularized
1) Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
| 2) Mucus-secreting goblet cells
43
The olfactory chemoreceptors are located in the ____, a specialized region of the mucous membrane covering the superior ___ at the roof of the nasal cavity.
1) olfactory epithelium
| 2) conchae
44
The olfactory epithelium is a pseudostratified columnar epithelium composed of what three parts?
1) Basal, stem cells
2) Supporting cells
3) Receptor cells (Neurons)
45
Internal nares are also called
Conchae
46
What are the three regions to the pharynx?
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
47
Nasopharynx lies over soft palate. Starts at the ___. Contains the pharyngeal tonsils, ___. *Lined with ____ epithelia. Openings to two ___ (auditory or Eustachian) tubes which help with three things:
1) internal nares
2) adenoids
3) respiratory
4) pharyngotympanic
5) open into middle ear, open by swallowing or yawning, help equalize air pressure on the ear drum
48
____ is a fleshy extension at the back of the soft palate which hangs above the throat.
uvula
49
The pharynx is a tube with walls of ___ muscle and lined with mucous membrane.
skeletal
50
Oropharynx extends from soft palate down to level of ____ bone. Receives the ____ (opening from oral cavity) contains two types of tonsils (____ tissue):
1) ____ (ones removed during tonsillectomy)
2) ____ tonsils (lie at base of tongue)
```
A) hyoid
B) fauces
C) lymphoid
1) palatine
2) lingual
```
51
A circular ring of lymphoid tissue that guards the entrance to the nasopharynx and oropharynx
The 'tonsilar' Waldeyer ring
52
Laryngopharynx extends downward from level of hyoid bone*, empties into:
1) ____(food tube) posteriorly
2) larynx (voice box) and trachea anteriorly
1) esophagus - opening = upper esophageal sphincter
| 2) larynx - opening = glottis
53
The ___, in addition to maintaining an open airway, movements of laryngeal cartilages by skeletal muscles participate in sound production during ____, and the _____ serves as a valve to prevent swallowed food or fluid from entering the trachea
1) larynx
2) phonation
3) epiglottis
54
The larynx contains ___ and ___ cartilage
Thyroid cartilage and cricoid cartilage
55
The ____ projects from the upper rim of the larynx and extends into the pharynx.
epiglottis
56
The wall of the trachea is lined by typical _____ underlain by lamina propria and _____ in the lamina propria and submucosa.
Submucosa contains C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage covered by ____ .
The watery mucous fluid produced by goblet cells and by the glands forms a layer permitting ciliary movement to propel foreign particles out of the respiratory system in the ____.
1) respiratory epithelium
2) seromucous glands
3) perichondrium
4) mucociliary escalator.
57
From the bronchial tubes to the lungs, ___ decreases and ___ increases
cartilage decreases and smooth muscle increases
58
Each broncho-pulmonary segments is supplied by a different _____ bronchus.
tertiary (segmental)
59
How do cells change descending from larger bronchioles to smaller ones?
In the larger bronchioles, the epithelium is still ciliated pseudostratified columnar, but this decreases in height and complexity to become ciliated simple columnar or cuboidal epithelium in the smaller terminal bronchioles.
60
Descending from larger bronchioles to smaller ones, ____ cells disappear during this transition, but the epithelium of terminal bronchioles instead contains other numerous columnar cells, commonly called ___ cells which are mitotically active cells secrete ____ components and have various important defensive roles.
1) Goblet
2) Club
3) Surfactant
61
In bronchioles there is a lack of cartilage and ___
glands
62
Groups of cells, called ____ bodies, occur in some bronchioles and at higher levels in the bronchial tree.
These are innervated by autonomic and sensory fibers and some of the cells appear to function as ____ receptors in monitoring air O2 levels.
Terminal bronchioles branch into ____ bronchioles.
1) neuroepithelial
2) chemosensory
3) respiratory
*Epithelial stem cells are also present in these groups of cells.
63
Portions of the respiratory bronchioles are lined with ciliated ____ epithelial cells and ___ cells.
At the rim of the alveolar openings, the bronchiolar epithelium becomes continuous with the squamous alveolar lining cells (______).
Proceeding distally along these bronchioles, the alveoli increase in number, and the distance between them is reduced.
1) Cuboidal
2) Club
3) type I alveolar cells/type 1 pneumocytes
64
Which muscle and tissue type lie beneath the epithelium of respiratory bronchioles?
Smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue
65
Type I alveolar cells (also called ___) are extremely thin cells that line the alveolar surfaces and cover __% of the alveolar surface.
Organelles such as the ER, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria are grouped around the ___, leaving large areas of cytoplasm free of organelles and reducing thickness of the ___ for gas exchange.
1) type I pneumocytes or squamous alveolar cells
2) 97% = type 1; (type II cells covering the remainder).
3) nucleus
4) blood-air barrier
66
What is emphysema?
When alveoli burst and fuse into enlarge air spaces. surface area for gas exchange is reduced
67
In the blood- air barrier, respiratory gases have to diffuse across which 3 layers?
1) alveolar epithelial cell
2) basement membrane
3) capillary endothelial cell
68
Type II alveolar cells (___) are interspersed among the type I alveolar cells.
Type II cells are ___ cells that often occur in groups of two or three along the alveolar surface at points where the alveolar walls unite.
1. type II pneumocytes
| 2. cuboidal
69
Type II alveolar cells divide by ___ to replace their own population and provide ____ to replace the type I population.
1. mitosis
| 2. progenitors
70
Type II alveolar cells produce ____ in the alveoli; thus, they act similarly to Club cells in the bronchioles.
surfactant
71
____ in lung are often slightly darker due to their content of dust and carbon from air and ___ from erythrocytes.
1. Alveolar macrophages (Dust cells)
| 2. Complexed iron (hemosiderin)
72
Filled alveolar macrophages have various fates:
- Most migrate into bronchioles where they move up the ____ for removal in the pharynx;
- Others exit the lungs in the ____.
- Some remain in the ____ connective tissue for years.
1. mucociliary escalator
2. lymphatic drainage
3. interalveolar septa
73
Medical application: Alveolar macrophages phagocytize ____ that pass into lungs during congestive heart failure*. These heart failure cells are identified by ____ reaction for iron pigment.
1. erythrocytes
| 2. histochemical
74
Regeneration of alveolar lining:
Inhalation of ____ (smoking!) can kill type I and type II cells. Death of the first cells results in ___ in the remaining type II cells, the progeny becomes ____.
1. toxic gases
2. increased mitotic activity
3. both type 1 and type II alveolar cells.
75
The normal turnover rate of type II cells is estimated to be ___ and results in a continuous renewal of both types of alveolar cells. With increased toxic stress, ___ cells can also divide and give rise to alveolar cells.
1. 1% per day
| 2. Club cells
76
What is gustation?
tasting
77
The outer surface of lips is covered by hairy skin and goes through a transition zone called the ____
1. vermillion (which is what most of us consider actual ’lips’)
78
The color of the vermillion is determined by a vascularized dermis underneath, covered by thin ___.
The vermillion border is very sensitive, due to rich nerve innervation, and is also devoid of ____.
1. keratinized epidermis.
| 2. sweat and sebaceous glands (lips require moisture from saliva to prevent cracking.)
79
Tooth histology:
____ – covers the tooth crown (hardest substance in the human body)
____ – makes up most of the crown and root, made up of hydroxyapatite crystals
____ – contains many sensory nerve endings and is highly vascularized
1. Enamel
2. Dentin(e)
3. Dental pulp (in pulp cavity or chamber)
80
Tooth histology:
____ – calcified substance covering the root where periodontal ligament attaches
____ – attaches tooth root to alveolar bone (with tooth sockets/alveoli) of mandible and maxillary bones
4. Cementum
| 5. Periodontal ligament
81
The tongue is mostly muscular, used for ___(taste) is mediated by taste buds in papillae found on the surface.
1. gustation aka chemoreception (taste).
82
What are the different parts of the papillae of tongue's surface
Fungiform, Circumvallate (Vallate), Foliate, Filiform (no taste buds on these)
83
Each taste bud has ___ cells which form an outer protective layer.
At the surface, there is a taste pore, through which ____ enter.
Within each taste bud, there are sensory receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal stem cells.
The ____ cells give rise to new receptor cells.
1. capsule cells
2. tastants (chemicals that can be tasted)
3. basal stem cells
*Taste buds consist of 50-100 cells.
84
In taste buds, sensory receptor cells have ___ at their surface to increase surface area for detecting tastants.
Taste receptor cells are ___ cells innervated by cranial nerves.
1. microvilli
| 2. they are specialized epithelial (not neurons!)
85
___ occurs in the microvilli of taste buds
Taste transduction
86
If taste buds lose innervation, they disappear but can regenerate with _____.
new innervation and stem cell differentiation
87
The tongue is innervated by cranial nerves VII, IX, & X:
1. The facial nerve (CN VII, ___ is one branch of facial nerve) innervates ____
2. Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) innervates _____.
3. The vagus nerve (CN X) innervates the ___.
1. chorda tympani; anterior tongue.
2. the posterior tongue
3. epiglottis
88
Two main types of salivary glands:
1. Serous glands – secrete ____ proteins
2. ____ glands – secrete glycosylated proteins
1. non-glycosylated proteins (e.g. digestive enzymes)
2. Mucous glands = mucin (Mucus forms when mucin gets hydrated.)
*Serous glands have ROUND nuclei*****
89
Salivary glands:
- Parotid gland is primarily ____.
- Sublingual gland is primarily _____.
- Submandibular salivary gland is _____.
1. serous acini
2. mucous (mucinous) acini
3. a mixture of both
90
Salivary glands:
| Mucous cells of salivary glands are typically ___ than serous cells, with ___ nuclei.
1. larger
2. flattened basal
Mucous (adj) vs. Mucus (noun)
91
The role of surfactant is to ______
Help prevent the alveoli from collapsing
92
_____ decreases as you go down the respiratory tract and get closer to the alveoli?
Cartilage
93
Which cells is responsible for the regeneration of receptor cells in the olfactory epithelium?
Basal cells
94
Which type of cell located in the olfactory epithelium has hair cells (cilia like extensions) that increases the surface area for chemoreception?
Olfactory neurons
95
The ____ are the structural and functional units of the kidneys. They are tiny blood processing units that carry out the process of the formation of urine.
Nephrons (Each kidney contains over 1 million)
96
The ____ is the middle part of the cortical lobule or renal lobule, consisting of a group of straight tubes connected to the collecting ducts.
```
Medullary ray (Ferrein's pyramid) "collecting tubules"
Their name is potentially misleading — the "medullary" refers to their destination, not their location
```
97
The capsule and glomerulus is known as the ____
The capsule and glomerulus is known as the renal corpuscle
98
Renal Corpuscle and Macula Densa contain chemoreceptors that respond to changes in the levels of __
NaCl
99
What is the difference in appearance between distal convoluted tubules and proximal convoluted tubules?
- Distal tubules have wide lumen and short microvilli
100
The ____ are short ducts that open on the tip of the renal papillae. They are formed by the union of collecting tubules
papillary ducts
101
____ - Renal papillae with Ducts of Bellini
Renal Pelvis
102
__% of resting cardiac output flows into the kidneys per minute!
25%
103
Blood supply to the kidney:
Renal artery -> segmental arteries -> ___ -> ____ -> interlobular arteries -> ___ -> glomerular capillaries -> ____ -> peritubular capillaries/vasa recta -> interlobular veins -> ___ -> interlobar veins -> segmental veins -> renal vein
- interlobar arteries
- arcuate arteries
- Afferent arteries
- Efferent arteries
- arcuate veins
104
The ___ are slender tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to the bladder
ureters
105
Transitional epithelium is located in calyces, pelvis, ___ and ____ bladder
-ureters and urinary bladder
| Transitional epithelium can stretch due to hydrostatic pressure
106
The ___ is a smooth collapsible muscular sac that stores urine temporarily
bladder (transitional epithelium)
107
____ are ductless glands that secrete hormones.
Endocrine glands
108
_____ (adrenaline) is released by nerves (neurotransmitter) and is hormone
Epinephrine
109
Epinephrine is ___ soluble.
| Testosterone is ___ soluble
1. E = water soluble
| 2. T is lipid soluble
110
______: Close association between CNS and hormone release. Hypothalamus and preoptic area produce releasing and inhibitory hormones which
control the release of hormones from the _____
1. Neuroendocrinology
| 2. anterior pituitary gland
111
An outside factor is required to shut off a ___ feedback loop
positive
112
A baby suckling on the nipple sends signal to hypothalamus, which then signals posterior pituitary gland to release ____ into bloodstream. This hormone stimulates release of milk from mammary gland.
Continuous suckling repeats this cycle. This is known as a ___ feedback loop
1. Oxytocin
| 2. positive feedback loop
113
Hormonal**
The hypothalamus secretes hormones that stimulate the ___ pituitary gland to secrete hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands (like __) to secrete hormones
1. anterior
| 2. thyroid, adrenal, gonads
114
Humoral**
| If capillary blood contains low levels of ___, it stimulates secretion of parathyroid hormone
Ca2+
115
Neural**
| Preganglionic SNS fibers stimulates adrenal medullary cells to secrete ____
catecholamines (epi and norepi)
116
Where is oxytocin created? stored? What does it do?
It is created in Hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary gland. It stimulates uterine contraction and milk letdown
117
Where is Growth hormone created? What does it do?
GH is released from anterior pituitary gland and is essential in bone growth, protein synthesis, and cell division
118
Where is thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormone created? What does it do?
Created in thyroid, release is stimulated by TSH (from anterior pituitary). It increases metabolic rate and regulates growth and development
119
Where is gluccocorticoid (cortisol) hormone created? What does it do?
Created in Adrenal cortex, release is stimulated by ACTH (from anterior pituitary). It raises blood glucose level and stimulates protein breakdown
120
Where is mineralcorticoid (aldosterone) hormone created? What does it do?
Created in Adrenal cortex, release is stimulated by ACTH (from anterior pituitary). It signals the reabsorbtion of sodium and excretion potassium
121
Where is Epinephrine and Norepinephrine hormone created? What does it do?
Created in Adrenal medulla. Hormones are active in emergency situation; raises blood glucose level
122
Where is Thymosin hormone created? What does it do?
Created in thymus. It signals production and maturation of T lymphocytes
123
Where is Insulin hormone created? What does it do?
Created in Pancreas. Signals formation of glycogen, which lowers blood glucose levels
124
Hypophyseal portal system & blood flow to pituitary:
The ___ artery delivers blood to the capillary network in the ___. Then the portal vessels deliver blood containing ___ factors to the capillary network within the ___ of the pituitary gland. Then the ___ artery delivers blood to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. ___ carries blood containing the pituitary hormones to the cardiovascular system for delivery to the rest of the body.
1. superior hypophyseal
2. median eminence
3. regulatory factors
4. anterior lobe
5. inferior hypophyseal
6. Hypophyseal veins
125
Cells of anterior pituitary glands:
____, Basophils, & Chromophobes
-Specific hormones are detected by immunocytochemistry or hormone binding assays.
1. Acidophils
| 2. Chromophobes (may represent stem cells or dormant chromophils on H.E. stain)
126
Somatotropin/Growth hormone:
Almost 50% of cells in the anterior pituitary are ___.
Somatotropin induces growth via ____, by stimulating ____ of epiphyseal plates of bones.
1. somatotrophs
2. insulin-like growth factor-1 (produced by the liver)
3. hypertrophy
127
Somatotrophs are cells that release somatotropin, also known as growth hormone.
acidophilic
128
Somatotropin/Growth hormone defects:
In an infant, hypersecretion leads to _____.
In an infant, hyposecretion leads to _____.
In an adult, hypersecretion causes _____.
1. gigantism
2. pituitary dwarfism
3. acromegaly
129
Describe acromegaly
It is a hormonal disorder that develops when your pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone during adulthood. When this happens, your bones increase in size, including those of your hands, feet and face
130
Almost 20% of cells in the anterior pituitary are ____.
Mammotrophs: acidophilic cells that release prolactin.
131
____ promotes the initiation and maintenance of lactation:
- Growth and development of mammary gland with ___
- Initiation of lactation with ____
- Maintenance of lactation with _____
1. Prolactin
2. estrogen and progesterone
3. estrogen and progesterone
4. oxytocin
132
Suckling is a key stimulus for release of prolactin via ______.
via prolactin-releasing hormone and release of dopamine inhibition from hypothalamus
133
The stimulatory factors of prolactin regulation are? (2)
1. Prolactin-releasing hormone (PSH)
| 2. Thyrotopin-releasing hormone (TRH)
134
Neurons in the ___ nucleus of the hypothalamus release of ____ in pulses* which stimulates the gonads
1. arcuate
| 2. gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH, also known as luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, LHRH)
135
GnRH causes ____ in the anterior pituitary to release 2 gonadotropins:
1. gonadotrophs (basophilic cells)
| 2. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) & luteinizing hormone (LH).
136
Gonadotropin regulation:
In addition to the feedback loops involving FSH and LH, ___ hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone) play roles as well.
FSH and GnRH are inhibited by ___, secreted by target cells of FSH (ex:___)
These same target cells provide positive feedback of FSH through the secretion of ___ to increase FSH binding in females and to enhance ____ in males.
1. steroid
2. inhibin
3. Sertoli cells in male testes and cells in ovarian follicle).
4. activin
5. spermatogenesis
137
```
Sex Hormones:
____ – mainly from ovaries and placenta
____ – mainly from the testes
Both males and females make all of these hormones.
Differ in the relative amounts.
```
1. Progesterone & estrogens (especially estradiol)
| 2. Androgens (especially testosterone)
138
____ make up about 5% of all cells in the anterior pituitary.
____ - from the hypothalamus causes the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, to regulate thyroid function and growth.
____ causes the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones, T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxine), dependent on dietary iodine.*
1. Thyrotrophs (basophilic cells)
2. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
*Thyroid hormones increase our metabolic rates and body temperatures.
139
The ____ glands are separated from the capsule of the thyroid gland by their own connective tissue capsules.
The ____ is the connective tissue capsule of the thyroid gland extends ____ into the mass of the gland, which is subdivided into incomplete lobules
1. parathyroid
2. Septum
3. Septa
140
Active thyroid cells become more ____ in shape. Scalloping of colloid shows colloid removal for conversion into active hormone.
Inactive thyroid cells are seen as more _____
1. columnar
| 2. cuboidal (or flattened)
141
A TSH deficiency is known as _____. In adults, it causes low basal metabolic rate, ______, and temperature and physical and mental lethargy.
In infants, congenital hypothyroidism causes _____.
1. hypothyroidism
2. myxedema (swelling due to GAGs in dermis)
3. extreme stunted growth
* cretinism is hypothyroidism in infants*
142
______ is an autoimmune disorder that results in the destruction of the thyroid gland.
Hashimoto’s Disease can cause Inflammation of thyroid glandalso known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, often leads to an underactive thyroid gland
143
An overproduction of thyroid hormones causes ____.
| One of the major causes is ___ Disease, an autoimmune disease due to both environmental and genetic factors.
hyperthyroidism
| Grave’s Disease
144
```
Hyperthyroidism: Although negative feedback decreases TSH levels, circulating levels of thyroid hormones are high.
Hyperthyroidism ____ (bulging eyeballs) and high metabolic rate with hyperactivity.
```
exophthalmos (bulging eyeballs)
145
___ is an abnormal enlargement of your thyroid gland. It can occur with both hypo- and hyper-thyroidsm.
Goiter
Hyperthyroidism = toxic or exopthalamic goiter*
Hypothyroidism = iodine deficiency goiter
146
The thyroid gland also makes ___, which regulates blood calcium. Its secretion is stimulated by increased blood calcium levels and is independent of ____ hormone levels.
1. calcitonin (decreases blood calcium)
| 2. pituitary and thyroid
147
Calcitonin decreases blood calcium by decreasing the activity of ___ in bone.
____ cells, which produce calcitonin are usually found between thyroid gland follicles.
1. osteoclasts
| 2. Thyroid C
148
The parathyroid glands secrete ____ in response to decreased calcium levels in the blood.
There are four, small glands located on the ___ surface of the thyroid gland.
1. parathyroid hormone (increases blood calcium)
| 2. posterior
149
PTH increases ____ activity.
PTH increases calcium absorption by the ____.
and by the ____ intestine.
1. osteoclastic
2. kidneys
3. small intestine (with Vitamin D needed)***
150
______ can result in too much calcium taken from bones, leaving them very weak.
Hyperparathyroidism
151
```
Two main cell types in parathyroid:
____ cells (eosinophilic, function unclear)
____ cells that synthesize and release PTH (round central nuclei, pale staining with H&E but increases with activity)
```
Oxyphil
| Chief/Principal
152
Adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH):
_____ make up about 20% of all cells in the anterior pituitary.
_____ from the hypothalamus causes corticotrophs to release ACTH (and other important molecules like endogenous opiates).
ACTH, in turn, affects the ___ of the adrenal gland.
1. Corticotrophs (basophilic cells)
2. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (or factor, CRH or CRF)
3. cortex
153
Adrenal Cortex:
Secretes ____. Provides long-term response to stress.
____ is among most important for stress responses.
Others regulate glucose metabolism (____)
Lipids and protein are broken down to fatty acids and amino acids, respectively, & travel to the ____
1. glucocorticoid steroids
2. Cortisol (hydrocortisone)
3. gluconeogenesis
4. Liver makes glucose which moves into the blood or is stored as glycogen.
154
Some glucocorticoid steroids can act as ___ agents.
| Also assist in the development and maintenance of __ cells.
anti-inflammatory
| T cells
155
The adrenal cortex secretes ____which influences salt and water balance. These act on kidneys to raise blood Na+ level and blood pressure when low. The adrenal cortex also secretes small amounts of ___.
1. aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid
| 2. androgens
156
Adrenal cortex zones:
___ - secretory cells in round clusters; mostly secrete aldosterone.
___ - secretory cells in cords perpendicular to the capsule; mainly secrete cortisol.
___ - irregular cords; secrete androgens
Zona glomerulosa - cells, separated by trabeculae
Zona fasculata
Zona reticularis
157
The adrenal medulla secrete ___ hormones.
These hormones are part of the ‘fight-or-flight’ response, stimulated by ___ nervous system.
**They are a short-term response to stress, while cortisol from the adrenal cortex is a long-term response. **
1. catecholamine hormones (Epinephrine/adrenalin &
norepinephrine/noradrenalin)
2. sympathetic
158
The posterior pituitary is an extension of the ____.
| Two hormones are synthesized by neurons in the latter and secreted from their ___ into the posterior pituitary gland.
1. hypothalamus
| 2. axon terminals
159
_____ contracts smooth muscle of uterus during labor.
| Contracts smooth muscle in breasts to cause milk ____ during lactation
Oxytocin
| Ejection (not production)
160
___ peaks at orgasm for women
oxytocin
161
Oxytocin and ____ peak at orgasim for men
vasopressin
162
Vasopressin = Anti-diuretic hormone
Effects on kidneys: ____
Is inhibited by ____ because it is a diuretic, so it makes you urinate a lot.
Important for pair bonding in men
1. Reabsorption of water from urine to concentrate it
| 2. Alcohol
163
The ____ is both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
Exocrine component secretes ____ into the small intestine.
_____ form the endocrine component.
___ form exocrine component.
1. Pancreas
2. digestive enzymes
3. Islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets)
4. Acini
164
The ____ is located at the midline of the brain, on top of the third ventricle
Pineal gland
165
The pineal gland secretes ____ in response to darkness.
Prevents maturation of ___ until puberty
Involved with ____ (e.g. sleep-wake cycle)
1. melatonin (Do not confuse with melanin!)
2. gonads
3. “biological clocks” -- circadian rhythms
166
___ is used to treat jet lag and SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder)
Melatonin
167
A 35 year old male presents with an enlarged nose, chin and ears, as in the figure below. His history shows that these traits were not present 5 years earlier. What is most likely to cause these signs?
Hyperthyroidism as an adult
168
What directly causes the production of testosterone in the testes
Luteinizing hormone
169
Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin are produced in the ____ and released from the ___ pituitary gland
1. Hypothalamus
| 2. Posterior!!!
170
Which cells are responsible for making the insulin in pancreatic islets
Beta cells
171
Disorders of Proximal nephron function include the luminal surface and peritubular factors are affected. maximum reabsorption are walls of convoluted tubules are composed of?
Microvilli = reabsorption
*Quiz Q
172
Keritonized cells are scratchy, strong, barriers
Quiz Q
173
Pancreatic secretions are regulated by reabsorption of entry of proteins and fats that activate acini rich in pancreatic juice
Release of CCK is due to fats and proteins entering small intestines (duodenum)
Quiz Q*
174
Pancreas secretion released in response of HCL in duodenum that mainly targets duct cells to release bicarb rich pancreatic juices
Secretin
Quiz Q*
