Week 3 Flashcards
1
Q
What purpose does systematic scientific research help us fulfill?
A
It allows us to divest ourselves of preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.
2
Q
empirical
A
- grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing
3
Q
the goal of all scientist is to:
A
understand the world around them
4
Q
What do psychologist focus their attention on?
A
- understanding behaviour, as well as cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behaviour
5
Q
Why is psychology more difficult to observe?
A
- behaviour (like crying) is observable, but the mind (why the person is crying) is not
6
Q
How do we think critically about information we encounter?
A
- exercise a degree of healthy skepticism
7
Q
What should we do when someone makes a claim?
A
examine the claim from different perspectives
- what is the expertise of the person making the claim
- what might they gain if the claim is valid
- does claim seem justified given the evidence
- what do other researchers think of the claim
8
Q
Why is a degree of healthy skepticism important?
A
- lots of information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claim to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives
9
Q
Why should we be informed consumers? (2)
A
- info made available to us is not always true and decisions based on this info have significant consequences
- one such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy
10
Q
facts
A
- observable realities
11
Q
opinions
A
- personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate
12
Q
What makes the difference between facts and opinions?
A
- research
13
Q
In a scientific community, how are facts established?
A
- only using evidence collected through empirical research
14
Q
how is scientific knowledge advanced?
A
- through process known as scientific method
15
Q
scientific method (2)
A
- ideas (theories and hypotheses) are tested against real world (in form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on
- scientific process is circular
16
Q
deductive reasoning
A
- ideas/hypotheses are tested against empirical world to create empirical observations
17
Q
inductive reasoning
A
- empirical observations lead to new ideas/hypothesis
- uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations
18
Q
In scientific context , what does deductive reasoning do? (2)
A
- begins with a generalization, one hypothesis, that is used to reach a logical conclusion about the real world
- if the hypothesis is correct, then logical conclusion reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct
19
Q
Why do scientist use deductive reasonin?
A
- to empirically test the hypotheses
20
Q
How is inductive reasoning different from deductive reasoning?
A
- conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of observations on which they are based
21
Q
What is the use of inductive reasoning?
A
- to formulate theories, which generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning
22
Q
Why are case studies associated with inductive processes?
A
- researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in data
23
Q
What reasoning does experimental research put more emphasis on?
A
- deductive reasoning
24
Q
theory (3)
A
- well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena
- repeatedly checked against the world, but tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of theories
- theory explains events (or behaviours) by offering up ideas that help organize a set of observations; theory simplifies a set of observations through explanation
25
hypothesis
- testable prediction about how the world will behave is our idea is correct, and is often worded as an if-then statement
26
Why are hypothesis important? (2)
- bridges gap between realm of ideas and the real world
- as specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the results of these tests
27
What is the cycle that includes hypothesis/general premise and empirical observations?
- hypothesis or general premise use deductive reasoning to get empirical observations
- empirical observations go through inductive reasoning to create more hypothesis or general premises
28
What is the cycle that includes theory, research, observation, and hypothesis (4)
- theories are used to form hypothesis
- hypothesis are used to design a study that will test the hypothesis (research)
- research is performed to create observations
- observations create or modify theories
29
falsifiable (2)
- capable of being shown to be incorrect
| - describes scientific hypotheses
30
What does scientific research depend on? (2)
- falsifiability as it produces great confidence in information produced
- typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly
31
How are scientists able to explain and understand how the world works?
- coming up with theories that generate hypothesis that are testable and falsifiable
- theories that stand up to their tests are retained and refined, while those that do not are discarded and modified
32
What does research allow scientists to do?
- enables scientists to separate fact from simple opinion
33
Pseudoscience (2)
- body of knowledge, methodology, belief, or practice that is claimed to be scientific or made to appear scientific, but does not adhere to scientific method
- pseudoscientific beliefs are remarkably common and resistant to change, even among well-educated persons
34
How can we identify pseudoscience? (7)
- use of psychobabble
- substantial reliance on anecdotal evidence (customer reviews)
- extraordinary claims in the absence of strong evidence
- unfalsifiable claims
- absence of connectivity to other research
- absence of adequate peer review
- lack of self-correction, often persist despite contradictory evidence
35
psychobabble
- words that sound scientific, but are used incorrectly or in a misleading manner (biofeedback, quantum energies, neuroplastic mechanisms)
36
cherry picking
- overemphasis of token data that supports a preferred conclusion and excludes contradictory evidence
37
apophenia
- tendency to perceive meaningful connections among unrelated phenomena
38
pareidolia
- seeing meaningful image in meaningless visual stimuli
39
hindsight bias (2)
- we tend to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have foreseen that outcome
- people tend to think that, given particular research finding, they knew that all along
40
overconfidence
- we tend to think we know more than we actually do, that is, we are often more confident in our answers than we are correct
41
clinical/case study
- observational research where focus is on one person or a few individuals
42
Why are the benefits of clinical/case studies? (3)
- attention on very small number of people can result in tremendous amount of insight on those cases
- richness of info collected in clinical/case studies is unmatched by any other single research method
- allows researcher to have deep understanding of individuals and particular phenomenon being studied
43
What are the negatives of clinical/case studies?
- individuals who serve as focus of case studies are not like most other people
- difficult to generalize any observations to larger population as a whole
44
generalizing
- ability to apply findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society
45
Summarize clinical/case studies
- provide enormous amounts of info, but since cases are so specific, the potential to apply what's learned to the average person may be limited
46
naturalistic observation (2)
- observing behaviour in its natural setting
| - not limited to research involving humans
47
What is critical during naturalistic observation?
- observer must be unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible because people are less liked to behave naturally if they know they are being watched
48
Why was naturalistic observation helpful in analyzing animals? (2)
- enabled studies on social hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels to gorillas
- provides invaluable information in understanding how animals organize socially and communicate with each other
49
What are the benefits of naturalistic observation? (3)
- validity/accuracy of the information collected unobtrusively in a natural setting
- higher degree of ecological validity/realism than achieved in research approaches
- ability to generalize findings to real world is enhanced
50
What are the downsides of naturalistic observation? (3)
- often difficult to set up and control
- no control of if or when you will have behaviour to observe
- often requires significant investments of time, money, and a good dose of luck
51
structure observation
- people are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks
52
observer bias
- potential problem in observational studies where observers may unconsciously skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations
53
How can researches protect against observer bias? (2)
- should have clear criteria established for the types of behaviours recorded and how those behaviours should be classified
- often compare observations of the same event by multiple observers
54
inter-rater reliability
- measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers
55
surveys
- lists of questions to be answered by research participants
| - used when researchers want to predict the attitudes or behaviours of a population based on a representative sample
56
How are surveys administered? (3)
- paper and pencil questionnaires
- electronically
- verbally
57
What are the benefits of surveys? (2)
- allow researchers to gather data from larger samples which better reflects diversity of population and better generalization
- most cost effective
- completed in a short amount of time
58
sample
- subset of individuals selected from a population
59
population
- overall group of individuals that researchers are interested in
60
What are the downsides of surveys? (2)
- unable to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study
- people don't always give accurate responses (may lie, misremember, or answer in a way that makes them look good)
61
archival research (2)
- use of existing records to answer various research questions
- relies on looking at past records or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships
62
What are the benefits of archival research?
- researchers never directly interact with research participants so investment of time and money to collect data is considerably less
63
What are the downsides of archival research? (3)
- no control over what information was originally collected
- research questions must be tailored so they can be answered within structure of existing data sets
- no guarantee of consistency between records from one course to another which makes comparing and contrasting different data sets problematic
64
longitudinal research (2)
- research design where data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time
- often used to understand particular risk factors involved in various diseases
65
cross-sectional research
- researcher compares multiple segments of population at the same time
66
What are the benefits of cross-sectional research?
- requires shorter time investment
67
What are the downsides of cross-sectional research?
- limited bu differences that exist between different cohorts that reflect social and cultural experiences of different generations or individuals
68
What are the benefits of longitudinal research? (2)
- researches need to be less concerned with differences among cohorts affecting the results of the study
- in enormous numbers of people, researches feel confident that findings can be generalized to larger population
69
What are the downsides of longitudinal research? (4)
- studies require incredible time investment by researcher and research participants
- result is not known for considerable period of time
- often require substantial financial investment
- participants must be willing to continue participation for extended period of time (people move, get married, take new names, get ill, die, etc)
70
attrition rates (2)
- reduction in number of research participants due to dropouts
- quite high in longitudinal studies and increase over course of study
71
critical thinking skills
- skills to evaluate claims with an open mind and carefully
| - help in overcoming biases
72
Six Principles
1. Ruling out Rival Hypotheses
2. Correlation vs. Causation
3. Falsifiability
4. Replicability
5. Extraordinary Claims
6. Occam's Razor
73
1. Ruling out Rival Hypotheses
- consider important alternative explanations
74
2. Correlation vs. Causation
- can we be sure A causes B?
75
3. Falsifiability
- can the claim be disproven
76
4. Replicability
- is it possible to duplicate the finding
77
5. Extraordinary Claims
- is the evidence as convincing as the claims
78
6. Occam's Razor (2)
- does a simpler explanation fit the data equally well
- Morgan's Canon: in no case is animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if ti can fairly be interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development
79
operational definitions (2)
- defines what the scientists is going to manipulate or measure
- used for psychologists to report on their studies
80
institutional review board (IRB) (2)
- a committee of individuals often made up of members of institution's administration, scientists, and community members
- review proposals for research that involve human participants, approval required for experiment to proceed
81
Who must have access to IRB?
- any research institution receiving federal support for research involving human participants
82
informed consent from (3)
- provides a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research
- lets participants know involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued without penalty at any time
- informed consent guarantees that any data collected in experiment will remain confidential
83
deception
- purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain integrity of experiment, but not where deception could be harmful
- participants must receive full debriefing upon conclusion of study is deception is involved
84
debriefing
- compete, honest information about purpose of experiment, how data will be used, the reasons why deception was necessary, and info about h0w to obtain additional info about the study
85
What species are used in animal research?
- 90% use rodents or birds because many basic processes in animals are sufficiently similar to those in humans
86
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) (4)
- consists of institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and community members
- charged with ensuring that all experimental proposals require human treatment of animal research subjects
- conducts semi-annual inspections of all animal facilities to ensure research protocols are being followed
- no animal research project can proceed without committee's approval
87
retrograde amnesia
- inability to retrieve memories for some delimited period of time prior to time where brain damage occurred
88
temporally-graded retrograde amnesia
- events closer to surgery were less likely to be remembered and events further from surgery or more likely to be remembered
89
anterograde amnesia
- inability to form memories of events occurring after the time where brain damage occurred
90
correlation
- method where you collect data on 2 or more variable and look for a relationship between the variable
- make it possible to use value of one variable to predict the value of another
91
positive correlation
- values of variable A increase and so do the values of variable B
92
scatterplot (2)
- show relationship between 2 variables
| - each data point corresponds to data on two variables for one subject
93
regression line
- summarizes relationship and draw predictions in a scatterplot
94
negative correaltion
- as values on variable B increase, values on variable A decrease
95
no correlation
- scatterplot that is almost perfectly circular, no correlation been variables
96
artificial correlation
- occurs when correlation is visually apparent but is actually caused by different groups present that are not apparent (sub-groups present)
97
Does a correlation mean causation is present?
- no, there may be a strong correlation but no causation between the two variables
