Week 3 - Chapter 3 Flashcards
(103 cards)
1
Q
What are heuristics?
A
mental shortcuts
2
Q
Heuristics are shortcuts for:
A
cognitive problem solving
3
Q
Why are heuristics strategies for coping with reality?
A
Because we are confronted with a huge volume of information, and some of the information is very complex
4
Q
Heuristics are to avoid being __________
A
overwhelmed
5
Q
What did David Kahneman do?
A
He proposed a theory of decision making and cognitive problem solving
6
Q
Kahneman calculated that we make ____________ decisions a day
A
35,000
7
Q
Kahneman proposed that each decision is a ________ to a cognitive problem
A
resolution
8
Q
Heuristics are _________ ______ (not mental shortcuts)
A
functioning utilities
9
Q
With heuristics, there are _______ and ______ consequences
A
positive; negative
10
Q
What is a negative consequence of heuristics?
A
The shortcuts often result in us making erroneous conclusions
11
Q
What are some benefits using mental shortcuts?
A
They prevent cognitive overload, and cognitive overwhelming. They relieve the burden of too much information
12
Q
What are some of the downsides to heuristics?
A
They can mislead people, and they can bias and distort the truth
13
Q
What is one of the costs of mental shortcuts?
A
We end up having faulty beliefs that we don’t even know are faulty
14
Q
What are cognitive biases?
A
Unconscious errors in thinking and perceiving, and in processing information
15
Q
The errors of cognitive biases are rooted in:
A
limitations of memory, limitations in attentional capacity, the need to be expedient in making choices, and the need to simplify our world
16
Q
What is the confirmation bias?
A
Selectively seeking out or paying attention to or overvaluing information
17
Q
What forms of media is the confirmation bias prevalent in?
A
TV news, and social media
18
Q
What are some examples of the confirmation bias in social media?
A
Political opinions, coronavirus, gun control, etc.
19
Q
Depending on what side of a stance you’re on, you will week out very ______ ______ about that stance in order to help prove your point
A
specific details
20
Q
What is the hindsight bias?
A
A false perception that past events are more predictable than they actually were
21
Q
What is the hindsight bias also know as?
A
The “I-knew-it-all-along-effect”
22
Q
What is an example of the hindsight bias?
A
Sporting events; if your team lost last week or if your team won last week
23
Q
What is the anchoring bias?
A
It results from excessive reliance on early pieces of information; information that comes to awareness first holds disproportionate sway over later beliefs
24
Q
What is an example of the anchoring bias?
A
Imagine you are making a clothing purchase online, and the first t-shirt you see is $1000. You then find a second shirt for $120.
You will falsely perceive the second shirt as being cheap and inexpensive but in reality, $120 is very expensive for a t-shirt.
25
In an anchoring bias, there has to be a _______
sequence
26
The anchoring bias is a ______ of the confirmation bias
coven; a collection of individuals with similar interests
27
What is the availability bias?
A bias in which information that is highly accessible to memory can skew decision making
28
In the availability bias, easy to recall memories have an _______ _______ on perceptions of the now and beliefs about the futures
outsized influence
29
Beliefs about the future are called _________
expectancies
30
What is an example of the availability bias?
Seeing a news report of a rare but vivid and easy to remember tragedy
31
What is the framing bias/effect?
The manner in which information is communicated has a biasing effect
32
Biases are _____, ________, and ______ _______
beliefs, perceptions, and decision making
33
________ is the way information is presented
Framing
34
What are the two basic types of causal attributions?
Internal and external
35
Research in 1999 by Kruger and Dunning found that incompetence feeds _______
overconfidence
36
One way to remedy ________ is to get people to think of one good reason why they might be wrong
overconfidence
37
When a person uses the _______ heuristic they presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group because it resembles a typical member of that group
representativeness or typicalness
38
In looking at attribution theory, people explain other's behaviours through internal dispositions which include:
A) Behaviours
B) Motives
C) Attitudes
D) Traits
Motives, attitudes, and traits
39
According to Kahneman (2011), how many brain systems do we have?
2
40
Activating particular associations in memory is _______
priming
41
Even when stimuli are presented unconsciously, their effects can become conscious due to:
priming
42
Over time, people are _____ likely to make the fundamental attribution error
less
43
Which characteristic of human thinking is MOST closely associated with lapses in judgement?
A) Thinking efficiency
B) Simplified memories
C) Complex memories
D) Thinking complexity
Thinking efficiency
44
Which of the following are methods for reducing overconfidence?
A) Considering disconfirming information
B) Unpacking the task
C) Focusing on expertise
D) Prompting feedback
Considering disconfirming information, unpacking the task, and prompting feedback
45
What theory explains another's behaviour by linking it to either internal or external situations?
Attribution theory
46
Kiley is attending university to be a nurse. As she learns of high blood pressure she starts to worry about the headache she has experienced. This can happen due to:
priming
47
The more time that has passed, the LESS likely people are to blame a behaviour on the ________
individual
48
Human's highly efficient thinking system makes _____ vulnerable to misjudgement
Intuition
49
Sarah went to the doctor's office where the receptionist acted cold and aloof. Sarah immediately felt the reception room get cold as if someone had turned on the air conditioning. Sarah is MOST likely experiencing a phenomenon known as __________ cognition
embodied
50
Mental concepts that help us to organize and guide our perceptions and interpretations are identified as:
schemas
51
Even when stimuli are presented unconsciously, their effects can become conscious due to _________
priming
52
John is a leader in his career; he speaks as an expert in all areas of the company. John's impression of expertise is an example of the _______ phenomena
overconfidence
53
A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconception is identified as _________ ____
confirmation bias
54
Our personal system of mental shortcuts is the definition of _________.
heuristics
55
A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory is identified as the _________ _______
availability heuristic
56
Imagining an alternative scenario or outcome that might have happened but did not is an identification of _______ thinking
counterfactual
57
Colton was told to eat his cereal and he would grow big muscles. Colton ate his cereal and checked his "growing muscles" in the mirror daily. Colton is experiencing an _______ ________
illusory correlation
58
Which theory explains another's behaviour by linking it to either internal or external situations?
Attribution theory
59
Our perceptions of uncontrollable events as being more in one's control than they really are is identified as an illusion of ________
control
60
The more time that has passed, the LESS likely people are to blame a behaviour on the ________
individual
61
Megan received a D+ on a recent test in a course where the average on tests is usually a B. Megan is likely to receive a higher grade on her next tests because of a phenomenon known as the ______ towards the _______
regression; average
62
Which of the following areas might be most impacted by ambiguous information?
a) mathematics
b) political ideals
c) religion
d) social sciences
Political ideals, religion, and social sciences
63
When the persistence of one's initial conceptions is discredited, but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives, this persistence is identified as ________ ________
belief perseverance
64
The _______ effect occurs when an individual incorporates new false details into an existing memory
misinformation
65
Fredrick is going gambling more often as he believes he has the pattern of the slot machine figured out and does have control over his outcome. Fredrick is demonstrating a/an ______ of control
illusion
66
A child's lack of achievement in school may be a result of lack of motivation and ability, which is a ________ attribution
dispositional
67
Aaron's parents are going through a divorce, and his grades are going down. This is due to the physical and social circumstances in his life, a ______ attribution
situational
68
An effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behaviour is identified as _________ trait inference
spontaneous
69
In which of the following locales is a person likely to consider the situation MOST when making an attribution about another person's behaviour
a) Canada
b) China
c) Sweden
d) Brazil
China
70
When a person's social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to validate their expectations it is indicative of behavioural __________
confirmation
71
The fundamental attribution error is observed most frequently in ________ cultures
Western or individualistic
72
When a behaviour is blamed on physical and social circumstances, a(n) _________ has been made
situational
73
When a person uses the _______________ heuristic, they presume that someone or something belongs to a particular group because it resembles a typical member of that group
representativeness
74
Dr. Diaz has participants read about a couple and rate the stability of the couple's relationship while sitting on either a stable or wobbly chair. Which of the following topics are they most likely studying?
a) The halo effect
b) Self-serving bias
c) Self-efficacy
d) Embodied cognition
Embodied cognition
75
Our system of cognition that allows for heuristics is identified as _____ shortcuts
mental
76
What is the purpose of System 1?
System 1 functions automatically and out of our awareness - it is often called intuition or a 'gut feeling'
77
What is the purpose of System 2?
System 2 requires our conscious attention and effort
78
What is embodied cognition?
The mutual influence of bodily sensations on cognitive preferences and social judgements
79
Our thinking combines both _____ processing and ______ processing
automatic; controlled
80
What is automatic processing?
Automatic processing is 'implicit' thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness- roughly corresponding with intuition (system 1)
81
What is controlled processing?
Controlled processing is 'explicit' thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious
82
What is the overconfidence phenomenon?
The tendency to be more confident than correct and to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs
83
_________ feeds overconfidence
Incompetence
84
Why does overconfidence persist?
because we like those who are confident
85
What is the confirmation bias?
A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
86
What are the two 'remedies' for overconfidence?
Prompt feedback, and to get people to think of one good reason why their judgements might be wrong.
87
_________ are a thinking strategy that enables quick and efficient judgements
Heuristics
88
What is the representativeness heuristics?
The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member
89
What is the availability heuristic?
A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory
90
What is counterfactual thinking?
When imagine alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't
91
What is an illusory correlation?
A perception of a relationship where none exists or a perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists
92
What is the regression towards the average?
The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behaviour to return toward the person's average
93
We respond not to reality as it is, but to reality as we ________ it
construe
94
What is belief perseverance?
The persistence of your initial conceptions, as when the bias for your belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives
95
What is the misinformation effect?
Incorporating 'misinformation' into one's memory of an event, after witnessing an event, and then receiving misleading information about it
96
What is meant by the term 'misattribution'?
Mistakenly attributing a behaviour to the wrong cause
97
What is the attribution theory?
The theory of how people explain the behaviour of others by attributing it to either to internal dispositions or external situations
98
What is dispositional attribution?
Attributing behaviour to the person's disposition and traits
99
What is a situational attribution?
Attributing behaviour to the environment
100
What is spontaneous trait inference?
An effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behaviour
101
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences on other's behaviour
102
What are self-fulfilling prophecies?
Beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment
103
What is a behavioural confirmation?
A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations
