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Self And Social > Week 4 > Flashcards

Week 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What was Thomas Hobbes views on humans?

A

That they are in naturally self interested and exist in a state of nature, which is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”

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2
Q

According to Hobbes, how do human escape the horrors of nature?

A

Individuals rationally agree to a social contract, sacrificing some freedoms in exchange for security and order provided by sovereign authority

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3
Q

What does Hobbes determine the nature of the contract is?

A

Self preserving. People consent to government or laws because it ensures their own survival and safety

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4
Q

What do Hobbes’ ideas align with?

A

Ethical egoism

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5
Q

What is ethical egoism?

A

People act in their self-interest

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6
Q

How do Hobbes’ ideas align with ethical egoism?

A

Individuals enter contracts not out of morality but rational self interest

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7
Q

What is psychological egoism?

A

All human actions are fundamentally driven by self-interest

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8
Q

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau believe about humans?

A

That they are innately good and naturally compassionate

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9
Q

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau think about people in the state of nature?

A

In the state of nature, people are empathetic and live in harmony

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10
Q

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau think about societal impact on humans?

A

Society corrupts humans, introducing competition, inequality, and selfishness

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11
Q

What did Jean-Jacques Rousseau say in The Social Contract?

A

That a just society should align with human goodness rather than suppress it

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12
Q

What did Batson propose?

A

Empathy leads to genuine altruism, rather than just self-interest

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13
Q

What did Aristotle argue about moral virtues?

A

That they are not innate, but are developed through habit and practice

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14
Q

What did Aristotle state that living virtuously leads to?

A

Eudaimonia, or human flourishing- a state of deep wellbeing and fulfilment

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15
Q

What is one virtue that requires balance (the golden mean) between excess and deficiency?

A

Generosity

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16
Q

What revived Aristotle’s idea that cultivating virtues leads to wellbeing?

A

Positive psychology (seligman and Peterson)

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17
Q

What framework did Seligman and Peterson come up with?

A

Character strengths and virtues framework

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18
Q

What does the character strengths and virtues framework identify?

A

24 strengths across cultures, aligning with Aristotle’s emphasis on moral development

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19
Q

What does positive psychology emphasise?

A

Developing strengths though intentional effort

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20
Q

What did Darwin argue about why sympathy and cooperation evolved?

A

Sympathy and cooperation evolved because they helped groups survive, not just individuals

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21
Q

What did Darwin say about tribes?

A

Tribes with strong social bonds and mutual aid would outcompete less cooperative ones

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22
Q

What was Darwin’s comments about tribes an early example of?

A

Group selection, suggesting that natural selection operates not just on individuals but also on groups

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23
Q

Name some influences on future models that Darwin’s thoughts had

A

-Kropotkin’s Mutual Aid (1902)- cooperation in animal and human societies
-Group Selection (D.S Wilson and E.O. Wilson 1990s-2000s)- cooperative groups outcompete selfish ones
-Kin Selection (Hamilton 1964)- cooperation can evolve at genetic and individual levels
-Cultural Group Selection (Boyd and Richardson 2000s)- norms and institutions promote cooperation across societies

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24
Q

Who came up with Kin Selection Theory?

A

W.D Hamilton (1964)

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25
What is Kin Selection Theory?
Introduced a mathematical model explaining why altruism evolves among relatives. Altruism is favoured by natural selection when the genetic benefits outweigh the costs
26
What is reciprocal altruism?
It shows why people help non-relatives if they expect help in return later e.g. grooming in primates, blood sharing in vampire bats, human friendships
27
What does reciprocal altruism explain?
How cooperation can evolve between non-relatives under certain conditions
28
Who came up with the idea of reciprocal altruism?
Robert Trivers (1971)
29
What factors must be present for reciprocal altruism?
-stable group -memory -punishment of free riders/cheaters
30
What did Dawkins argue about natural selection?
That natural selection operates at the level of genes, not individuals or species
31
According to Dawkins, why does altruism evolve?
Altruism evolves not because organisms are selfless, but because genes that promote cooperation among kin or reciprocators increase survival chances
32
What does Dawkins’ view integrate?
Kin selection and reciprocal altruism
33
What do critiques say about Dawkins’ theory?
-it diminishes the moral and social aspects of altruism, reducing it to mere genetic advantage -some worry it overemphasises genes, downplaying human agency and cultural influences
34
What did David Sloan Wilson (1981) theorise?
Multi-level selection theory
35
What is multi-level selection theory?
-selection occurs at genes, cells, individuals, and groups
36
What does David Sloan Wilson say about group success?
Cooperative groups outperform less cooperative ones
37
What does David Sloan Wilson say about altruism evolution?
Prosocial behaviours arise from group-level advantages
38
What does early childhood prosociality research by Warneken and Tomasello (2006) say?
Provides strong evidence that altruistic behaviour emerges early in human development, suggesting innate prosocial tendencies
39
When does spontaneous helping begin to occur?
14-18 months
40
What does emotional contagion in children say?
Early empathy, infants react to others’ distress, forming the basis of empathy
41
What has been explored by Piaget and Kohlberg?
Moral reasoning and peer influence
42
What was the topic known as that was explored by Piaget and Kohlberg?
Stages of moral reasoning
43
What can bystander pressure lead to?
Adolescents engaging in antisocial behaviours due to conformity
44
Which types of groups influence moral development?
Peer groups
45
What was the aim of the Batson et al. (1981)- Elaine Shock Experiment?
Does high empathy lead to helping even when escape is easy?
46
What was the Elaine Shock Experiment?
-participants observed a woman named Elaine receive electric shocks -they were given the choice to either take Elaine’s place or leave the experiment -it manipulated empathy levels by providing different backstories about Elaine -it also varied on ease of escape
47
Name another experiment to do with empathy-altruism
Toi and Batson (1982)- Carol Class Notes Study
48
What happened in the Carol Class Notes study?
-empathy was manipulated -levels of escape (some would see her in class and others wouldn’t) -participants listened to carol explain her coursework struggles after her car accident
49
What were the results of both Carol Class Notes and Elaine Shock?
High empathy
50
What does the negative state relief model say?
-a person observes a suffering victim -person feels a negative emotion (sadness) -person helps alleviate their own sadness (unless their sadness is alleviated in another way)
51
What was introduced for Carol Class Notes and Elaine Shock?
Extrinsic rewards like money or praise
52
What does Cialdini et al. (1987) emphasise?
-helping under high empathy decreases when rewards are provided -helping under high empathy decreases when mood cannot be improved -suggests egoistic motivation rather than pure altruism
53
What was the empathy-altruism hypothesis by Batson 1981, 1982?
Helping can be genuinely altruistic
54
Does any single theory fully explain complex motivations of prosocial behaviour?
No
55
Why do situational factors matter?
They significantly shape helping behaviour
56
Outline one critique and broader perspective on the altruism-egoism debate
Both models oversimplify human behaviour. Helping varies across people and situations
57
Outline another critique and broader perspective on the altruism-egoism debate
Empathy doesn’t always lead to helping. For example, in stressful situations it can lead to avoidance
58
What does Zaki and Mitchell’s Reflective Model of Prosociality outline?
Recent approaches emphasise sustained prosociality, examining long-term patterns of helping and their links to personal identity and society values
59
Outline how contextual factors impact the altruism-egoism debate
Helping is influenced by broader factors such as upbringing, personality traits, and cultural expectations. Altruistic behaviour is not uniform across individuals or contexts
60
Name an example of the bystander effect
Kitty Genovese
61
What happened to Kitty Genovese?
She was attacked in Queens, NY. Around 38 witnesses did nothing, which sparked public outrage
62
Give an experiment that reinforces or is associated with the Bystander Effect
Darley and Latané (1968): seizure, smoke-filled room (diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance)
63
What did Gaertner and Dovidio (2000) say about Common Ingroup Identity?
-recategorising “us” expands who deserves help (e.g. Levine et al. 2005 Soccer Fan Study) -merging subgroups into one superordinate category -reduces intergroup bias -fosters prosocial acts beyond narrow familial or reciprocal ties
64
Is there a single prosociality personality?
No. Different traits predict different types of prosociality depending on the social and moral context
65
Does oxytocin increase trust in others?
Kosfield et al. 2005 found that oxytocin strengthens social bonds, cooperation and generosity, fostering social connection and meaningful relationships
66
What were the environments of the oxytocin and trust study by kosfield et al. 2005?
Participants received oxytocin or placebo via nasal spray before engaging in a trust game (deciding how much money to invest in a stranger)
67
Define positive psychology
A shift from focusing on mental illness to fostering well-being (seligman and csikszentmihalyi 2000)
68
What are the three pillars of positive psychology?
-positive emotions (joy, gratitude, love) -engagement (flow and strengths) -meaning (purpose and contribution)
69
What is the PERMA model?
Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationshups, Meaning, Accomplishment, and Health
70
What is Broaden and Build Theory?
That positive emotions broaden thinking and build resilience over time
71
Who came up with broaden and build theory?
Fredrickson 2001
72
What is growth mindset by Dweck 2006?
Intelligence and abilities develop through effort and learning, fostering resilience and adaptability
73
What does self determination theory by Deci and Ryan (2000) state?
Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are essential for sustained motivation and well-being
74
Describe flow state by csikszentmihalyi 1990
Deep engagement and challenge-skill balance enhance performance and intrinsic motivation

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