wk 4-6 biological rhythms, sleep, sensation, learning and memory Flashcards
(136 cards)
1
Q
nocturnal and diurnal
A
nocturnal (active at night) diurnal (active during the day)
2
Q
zeitgeber
A
light, external or environmental cue that entrains or synchronizes an organism’s biological rhythms, usually naturally occurring
3
Q
where is the humans biological clock
A
Suprachiasmatic nucleus in hypothalamus
4
Q
how does cells in the eye tell the SCN when theres light
A
-population of cells in the retina send their projections (axons) directly to the SCN
-melanopsin is the light sensitive protein in the cell
5
Q
molecular basis of biological clocks
A
-cells in SCN make 2 proteins (clock and cycle)
-these proteins combine, enter the nucleus and promote transcription for per and cry
-once translated the per/cry protein complex enters the nucleus and inhibits further transcription of per/cry
-the per/cry protein degrades over time, so eventually this inhibition is lifted and the cycle starts again
-this process takes 24 hours
6
Q
biochemistry of rhythms (melatonin production and effect)
A
-the SCN regulates the release of melatonin from the pineal gland into the CSF (fluid)
-melatonin levels are lowest during the day (active at night, peak 4am)
-light suppresses the melatonin production and release
7
Q
depressive disorder with a seasonal component
A
is the reduction in daylight hours accompanied with changes in mood
-serotonin levels decrease in winter
-serotonin is a precursor of melatonin
-variation in genes can predispose individuals to seasonal depression (less sensitive to light)
-light therapy can help this
8
Q
ultradian-
A
shorter than one day eg, pulsatile hormone secretion
9
Q
infradian-
A
longer than one day, eg, human menstral cycle
10
Q
stages of sleep
A
Waking, Stage 1-3 slow wave sleep, REM
11
Q
stage 1 slow wave sleep
A
alpha rhythms 8-12 hz, sharp waves called vertex spikes appear, slower heart rate, reduced muscle tension
12
Q
stage 2 slow wave sleep
A
brief periods of sleep spindles and k complexes, 12-14hz
13
Q
stage 3 slow wave sleep- early
A
large slow delta waves low frequency high amplitude
14
Q
stage 3 slow wave sleep- late
A
delta waves become predominant
15
Q
REM sleep
A
deep relaxation but EEG activity in REM sleep resembles that of waking, vivid dreams, inhibition of motor neurons, small amplitude high frequency
16
Q
how many times does cycle last and repeat
A
lasts 90-120 minutes and repeats 3-4 times in an average 7-8 hour sleep
17
Q
nightmares
A
long frightening dreams that often wake the sleeper. Trauma or stressor-related events such as PTSD increase this
18
Q
night terrors
A
sudden arousal from stage 3 sws, non-responsive, common in children, children mostly grow out of it
19
Q
mammels sleep patterns depend on
A
shelter and if they are prey or predator, animals who don’t have shelter (cow) don’t sleep as much as they are vulnerable when they sleep
-animals with shelter (rabbits) sleep more
20
Q
unihemispheric
A
dolphins sleep one hemisphere at a time as they have to come up for air often
21
Q
sleep deprivation
A
experience hallucinations, difficulty concentrating, irritability, disorientation
-mild deprivation (4-6 hours per night for 2 weeks) can have effects cognitively despite not feeling fatiigued
22
Q
why do we sleep
A
-keeps animals safe (keeping them out of the environment where they can be preyed on)
-restores body (immune system function, ability to heal wounds, human forebrain is reduced in SWS and can conserve energy, growth hormones released in SWS
-important for memory consolidation (reorganisation of existing memories, reconsolidation)
23
Q
activation synthesis theory
A
content of dreams reflect on going neuronal activity
24
Q
threat simulation hypothesis
A
simulates escape from threat in dreams
25
what brain systems are used when sleeping
sleep- forebrain, brainstem,basal forebrain, pons
26
arousal systems that keep us awake
awake-arousal systems (reticular formation, acetycholine, norepinephrine, 7serotonin, oxerin
27
what do brainsystems do to keep us asleep
-brain stem- activates the forebrain into wakefulness
-forebrain- generates sws, then triggers REM sleep
-basal forebrain- generates SWS, neurons become active at sleep onset and release GABA into the hypothalamus
-pons- generates rem sleep, neurons only become active in rem, uses GABA and inhibits motor neurons
28
what do arousal system do to keep us awake
reticular formation- acts as a filter for sensory information
acetylcholine- active during wakefulness and rem
norepinephrine- discharges during wakefulness, decreases firing during SWS and ceases firing during REM
Serotonin- maximal discharge during waking
orexin- inhibits sleeps by preventing transition from wakefulness into rem
29
insomnia
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep for at least 3 night of the week for at least one months time, treated with CBT and stress managment
30
parasomnia
somnambulism- sleepwalking (stage 3 sws)
sleep enuresis- bed wetting associated with sws
31
RBD
rem behaviour disorder is characterised by organised behaviour from an asleep person (acting out dreams)
32
sleep breathing difficulties (sleep apnea, sids)
sleep apnea- breathing slows down or stops, blood oxygen drops, untreated can lead to cardiovascular disorders
SIDS- resulting from immature respiratory pacemaker system mechanisms
33
how to treat sleep disorders
medication binds to GABA receptors throughout the brain, continued use makes them ineffective, and can lead to drowsiness and memory gaps, sleep hygiene (avoiding caffein, dark room, routines) could be a way to treat sleep disorders without medication
-melatonin is a popular option
34
free running meaning
The period of time it takes for this internal rhythm to complete one cycle in the absence of external cues is called the free-running period. Animals with internal body clock exhibit this
35
sensation and what is physical stimuli
detection of stimuli and transmission of the brain, physical stimuli can be the waves (light or sound), chemicals (food, oder)
36
perception
brains further processing organisation and interpretation of the sensory info, our conscious experience of the world
37
bottom up processing
based on the physical features of the stimulus, as each sensory aspect of a stimulus is processed, these aspects build to form the perception of that stimulus
38
top down processing
how knowledge expectations, past experience shape our interpretations of sensory experience, and context affects perceptions (what we expect to see influences what we perceive)
39
discrimination
understanding the nature of the sensation depends on the neural pathway that is activated, different sensory receptors for different senses, different neural pathways, discriminate different intensity or quality
40
what are the different receptors for senses
rods and cones in the retina for sensing electromagnetic radiation (photons, visible light)
-hair cells in the cochlea for sensing sound waves
-taste receptors in the mouth and olfactory receptors in the nose for sensing chemicals
-variety of sensory receptors and free nerve endings in the skin for touch sensation
41
the specific receptors fo each sense
-photoreceptors (visible light)
-mechanoreceptors (sound waves, movement, touch, pressure, stretching)
-chemoreceptors (chemicals)
-thermoreceptors (temp)
-nociceptors (pain)
-electroreceptors (we don't have)
42
threshold for activation (absolute and difference)
Absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus that you can detect
Difference threshold- minimum amount of change in a stimulus that you can detect
43
transduction
-transduction- detection and translation of physical energy (or chemicals) into neural signals
-converts energy
44
adaptation
The tendency of sensory receptors to respond preferentially to change, the progressive loss of a response to a maintained stimulus
45
tonic receptors and phasic receptors
phasic receptors adapt rapidly to stimuli, firing briefly at the onset and offset, while tonic receptors adapt slowly, maintaining a continuous firing rate as long as the stimulus persists
46
vision
Visible light- electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths 400-700nm
47
quanta
small packages of electromagnetic radiation
48
photon
a quantum of electromagnetic energy in the wavelengths that we call lighta radiation
49
hue
hue (colour) light emitted by the sun has a broad spectrum, objects in environment reflect, absorb or refract this light, surface colour related to wavelengths reflected
50
focusing and controlling how much light enters the eye
-cornea and lens focus the incoming light , amount of light that enters the eye is controlled by the pupil, which is an opening of the coloured disc called the iris
51
accomodation
is changing the shape of the lens (to focus on mammals)
52
visual processing step-by-step
-retina,
-rods and cones (photoreceptors) detect light
-they control the activity of bipolar cells which turn connect with ganglion cells
-ganglion cells form the optic tract
53
scotopic and photopic vision
-scotopic- low light, rods only
-photopic- higher light conditions, several different types of cone cells that respond to different wavelengths of light
-colour vision
54
trichromatic theory
colour perception stating that there are 3 different types of cones, each excited by a different part of the spectrum Short Medium Long
55
opponent theory
colour is coded in opponent pairs, black white, yellow-blue, gree-red
56
acuity
visual acuity is best at the centre of the field, the fovea is the central region of the retina (dense concentration of cones)
57
transmission from eye-brain
-ganglion cells send their signals along with axons via the optic nerve,
-at the optic chiasm, half the axons cross to the other hemisphere
-visual areas of the hypothalamus
-primary visual cortex located in the occipital lobes
58
Pathways for perception
ventral stream- vision for perception and recognition of objects
dorsal stream- determining where an object is, vision for action
59
hearing
perception of vibrating waves of molecules
60
sound
motion of air molecules
61
air pressure rising and falling
rising is molecules compressing and falling is molecule further apart (refraction)
62
frequency
cycles per second of an auditory stimulus (Hz)
63
amplitude
the force that sound exerts per unit area
64
puretone
a tone with a single frequency of vibration
65
high vs low frequency
high- percieved as higher in pitch
low- perceived as lower in pitch
66
sound intensity
ear is sensitive to large range of sound pressures, so sound intensity is usually expressed in a logarithmic scale (decibels)
67
nominal threshold for sound
lowest sound a human can detect
68
synopsis of auditory function and 3 parts of the ear
-transforms sound waves into distinct patterns of neural activity, which are then integrated with information from other sensory systems to guide behaviour,
-collect sound waves amplify pressure to be transferred to a fluid medium,
-discriminate sound waves at different frequencies and convert mechanical signal to electrochemical signaoutter eat, middle ear, inner ear
69
inner ear
-discriminating waves at different frequencies, involves the basilar membrane
70
basilar membrane
membrane in the cochlea that vibrates in response to sound (frequency discrimination), is organised into frequencies
71
inner ear converting mechanical signal to an electrochemical signal
hairs moving back and forth generates action potential
72
tonophy-place theory
place theory
-systematic organisation of frequencies within an auditory structure, found in basilar membrane
73
temporal theory-phase locking
the main source of info about the sound frequency that complements info derived from tonotropic maps is the timing of neural firing
74
localizing sounds (intensity and latency differences)
intensity differences- difference in loudness at the 2 ears, sound shadow
latency differences- onset disparity, ongoing phase disparity
75
deafness 3types
1. conduction- (disorders of the external or middle ear prevent vibration from auditory stimuli from entering the cochlea)
2. sensorineural
3. Central- hearing loss by lesions, such as from stroke
cortical deafness- bilateral lesions to the primary auditory complex
76
chemical senses
taste- gustation
smell- olfactory
77
taste- 5 tastes, papilla, taste buds and taste cells
sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami, papilla is a small projection on the surface of the tongue, each papilla holds one or more taste buds, each taste bud holds 50-150 taste receptors
78
taste pore and cells
opening on the surface of the taste bud is the taste pore, taste cell extends fine cilia into the taste pore, fine cilia comes in contact with tastants
79
3 different types of taste papillae
circumvallate papillae, foliate papillae, fungiform papillae
each holds one or more taste buds
80
taste cell lifespan
10-14 days
81
cellular process tranduce basic tastes
salty and sour are evoked when taste cells are stimulated by ions acting on ion channels (ionotropic)
sweet bitter and umami tastes interact with g-protein-coupled receptors (metabotropic)
82
olfaction
detection of chemicals carried in the air or water, chemical stimulus must volatile, molecules mjst have left the object that you are smelling, must be water and lipid soluable
83
function of olfaction for mammals
taste at a distance, locate food, warning of danger, sexual attraction (pheromones)
84
organs of olfaction
a small thin sheet of cells high up in the nasal cavity called olfactory epithelium, The and olfaction receptors lifecycle 4-8 weeks, epilithic of animals indicates olfaction acuity
85
somatosensation
pressure, texture, temperature, position, limb, pain
86
skins 3 layers
1.epidermis (outer most layer)
2.dermis (middle layer)
3.hypodermis (innermost, anchors muscles and helps shape body, loose connective tissue, fat
87
4 tactile receptors detect touch
pacinians corpuscles- vibration, fast adapting
meissners corpuscles- touch, fast adapting
merkles disc- edges, slow adapting
ruffinis ending- stretch, slow adapting
88
somatosensory cortex-primary and secondary
primary SC is in the post central gyrus, receives touch information from the opposite side of the body, part of the body that are especially sensitive to touch are represented by larger areas of S1
Secondary SC- believed to perform higher-order functions including somatosensory integration, integration of info from the body's 2 halves, attention, learning and memory
89
what is learning
relatively enduring chnage in behaviour resulting from experience
90
why do we learn
to predict when certain events are likely to happen, better prepare for future environment
91
learning theory- psychodynamic approach
unconcious mental processes were the primary determinants of behaviour
92
behaviourist approach and method
environment and its associated effects on animals were the determinants of behaviour, method-observable behaviour is the only indicator of psychological activity
93
what are the types of learning
non associated learning- a change in behavioural response to a novel stimulus after repeated or continuous exposure to that stimulus
associated learning- learning is the relationship between two pieces of information, conditioning (classical and operant)
observational learning- aquiring or changing a behaviour after exposure to another individual performing that behaviour
94
what are the types of non-associative learning
habituation- a decrease in behavioural response after repeated exposure tto a stimulus, eg, not feeling your clothes after a while of wearing them
sensitisation- an increase in bahviour response after exposure to a stimulus (threatening or dangerous stimulus)
95
classical conditioning
when we learn that a stimulus predicts another stimulus
96
operant conditioning
when we learn that a behaviour leads to a specific outcome
97
pavlovs dogs
dog is presented with a bowl containing food, tube carries saliva to a container, container measures the amount of saliva. he found that the dog knew when there was going to be food
98
give the US UR NS before conditioning, CS and US during and CR after experiment, from ringing a bell dog experiment
food- US
saliva- UR
bell- neutral stimulus
during-
Bell- CS
Food- US
after conditioning- CR-Saliva
99
Whta is acquisition in classical conditioning
the CS and US pairings lead to increased learning, as a result the CS can produce CR
100
What is extingtion in classical condition
if the CS is produced without the US, eventually the CR disappears
101
spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning
later after extintion, if the CS is presented with the US the association is back
102
second order conditioning
once an association between the CS and US is well elarned, other stimuli may become a US and produce CR
103
stimulus generalisation in classical conditioning
occurs when stimuli that are similar, but not identical to the CS can produce a CR
104
Stimulus discrimination classical condiitoning
when an animal can learn to differentiate between similar stimuli when one stimulus is consistently paired with the US, but others are not
105
phobias
acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of the object or situation
106
little albert experiment
child heard a loud bang when playing with rat, fear generalised to rabbit (same size, fluffy)
107
reinforcement- operant conditioning
if an animal does something that brings about a desired result, it is more likely to do it again. Less likely to do something again if it results in undesired outcome
108
shaping- operant conditioning
you cant provide the reinforcement until the animal displays the appropriate response, so you can reinforce behaviours that are increasingly similar to the desired outcome. Eg, getting Pigeon to push ball
109
premack principle-operant conditioning
more valued activity can be used to reinforce the performance of a less valued activity
110
positive reinforcement
rewarding to increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated
111
negative reinforcement
the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated
112
schedules of reinforcement
-continuous reinforcment- always reinforced
-partial reinfoircment
-fixed ratio reinforcement- one reward for every 5 times the behaviour is done
-fixed interval reinforcement- every 30 seconds
113
punishment
reduces the probability that a behaviour is repeated
114
positive punishment
reduces the probability of a behaviour through application of an unpleasant stimulus (fine to pay)
115
negative punishment
reduces the probability of a behaviour through removal of a pleasant stimulus (license taken)
116
observational learning
learning by watching others and then imitating or modelling, what they say or do
117
modelling
more likely to imitate models who are attractive or high status and similar to us
118
vicarious learning
people learn the consequences of a behaviour through watching others being rewarded or punished for performing a behaviour
119
retrograde amnesia
inability to recall past events, or memories before the amnesia
120
anterograde amnesia
loose ability to make any new memories
121
alzheimers disease
most common form of dementia, increasing age is biggest risk factor, theories fro cause- acetylcholine, amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles
122
memory v learning
learning is the process of acquiring new info, while memory refers to the persistence of learning in a state that can be revealed at any time
123
memory processes
encoding (info from sensory channels into short term memory)
storage (the short term memory in a more durable long term store (consolidation))
retrieval-stored info for use in guiding behaviour
124
reconsolidation
theory that once a memory has been reactivated (ltm to stm) it needs to be consolidated again to be stored back into ltm therefore memories may differ from the original versions
125
atkins-shiffrin model
sensory input- sensory memory - short term memory (lost if not transfered)-long term memory- back to short term memory (retreival)
126
declarative (explicit) memories
episodic (memory of personal experiences) and semantic (memories of facts, concepts)
127
non-declarative memories (implicit)
things you know you can show by doing-skill learning, conditioning
128
engram
group of neurons that serve as the physical representation of memory
129
what is hebbs rule
when neurons often fire togetehr they wire together (synaptic connections become stronger and more stable when repeatedly activated together)
130
synaptic basis of memory
memories are stored in a large network of interconnected neurons, and experinece modify the connections between the neurons
131
plasticity
the strength of an existing connection can be increased (or decreased) by experience
132
long term potentiation and what happens to the neurons
a stable and enduring increase in effectiveness of synapsesthe occurs at several sites in hippocampal formation, the effects on neurons include
-increase in neurontransmitter release, increased number of dendrites and increased thickness of dendrite spines
133
suggestibility
the effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
134
misattributing
recalling a dream memory as a waking memory
135
bias
align memories to current beliefs
136
blocking
temporary block of accessibility to info (tip of the tongue)
