ꜰɪɴᴀʟ ᴀꜱꜱᴇꜱꜱᴍᴇɴᴛ · ᴄʜᴀᴘᴛᴇʀ ᴠɪɪɪ & ɪx

Question 1

Define “public opinion” ?

Answer 1

PUBLIC OPINION REFERS TO THE AGGREGATE MEASURE OF BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, JUDGEMENTS, & / OR PREFERENCES OF A POPULATION OVER MATTERS OF PUBLIC CONCERN

Question 2

Define “sample”. How does it relate to a “population” ? How big is a typical sample in opinion polls conducted today ?

Answer 2

A SAMPLE REFERS TO THE SMALLEST SUBSET OF INDIVIDUALS, ITS DRAWN FROM A POPULATION, TYPICAL SAMPLES ARE 500-1500 PEOPLE

Question 3

Define “social desirability bias”. How does it impact the accuracy of opinion polls ? & what is the easiest way to overcome it in terms of survey administration ?

Answer 3

SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS REFERS TO THE PROPENSITY TO ANSWER QUESTIONS INACCURATELY IN ORDER TO PUT ONESELF IN THE BEST LIGHT. IT CAN CAUSE UNDERREPRESENTATIVE DATA ABOUT WHAT IS BEING INQUIRED. ANONYMITY IS THE BEST WAY TO AVOID THIS BIAS.

Question 4

Define “ordering effects”

Answer 4

ORDERING EFFECTS REFERS TO HOW THE ORDER IN WHICH QUESTIONS ARE ASKED AFFECT THE RESPONSES

Question 5

Define “double-barreled questions”

Answer 5

DOUBLE-BARRELED QUESTIONS REFERS TO HOW RESPONDENTS ARE ASKED ABOUT MORE THAN ONE ISSUE BUT ONLY CAN GIVE ONE ANSWER

Question 6

Define “leading questions”

Answer 6

LEADING QUESTIONS REFERS TO QUESTIONS WORDED IN A WAY THAT SWAYS THE RESPONDENT TOWARDS ONE SIDE OF AN ARGUMENT

Question 7

Define “representative sample”. Be sure to know & understand what it means to say a sample is “demographically representative”.

Answer 7

A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE REFERS TO WHEN PROPORTIONALLY REFLECTS THE RELEVANT DIVERSITY OF OPINIONS WITHIN THE DRAWN POPULATION. DEMOGRAPHIC PROPORTIONALITY REFERS TO THE EFFECTIVE REPRESENTATION OF THE RACIAL, ETHNIC, RELIGIOUS, GENDER, & CLASS DIVERSITY OF THE POPULATION.

Question 8

Be sure to know & understand “nonresponse bias” & how it can lead to an “unrepresentative sample”.

Answer 8

NONRESPONSE BIAS REFERS TO WHEN PEOPLE WITH CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS ARE LESS LIKELY TO RESPOND TO SURVEYS THAN OTHERS AND PRODUCES A SAMPLE THAT UNDERREPRESENTS THOSE LESS LIKELY TO RESPOND

Question 9

Define “margin of error”.

Answer 9

MARGIN of ERROR REFERS TO THE AMOUNT WITHIN A SPECIFIED CONFIDENCE OF HOW A MEASURED SAMPLE DEVIATES FROM THE TRUE POPULATION VALUE

Question 10

What does sample size have to do with the margin of error ?

Answer 10

POLLS HAVE A SAMPLE SIZE OF 1500, AND THE AVERAGE MARGIN OF ERROR IS +/- 3 PERCENT. HIGHER MARGIN OF ERROR = LESS PRECISION

Question 11

Why do pollsters generally not use sample sizes as large as 4,500 ?

Answer 11

PRODUCES A HIGHER MARGIN OF ERROR

Question 12

Define “the bandwagon effect”.

Answer 12

“THE BANDWAGON EFFECT” REFERS TO PEOPLE WHO DECIDE TO SUPPORT A CAUSE BECAUSE POLLS DEMONSTRATE POPULARITY OF THE CAUSE/CANDIDATE

Question 13

Make sure to understand the SIX guidelines for being a responsible consumer of polls.

Answer 13

· CONSIDER REPUTATION & POSSIBLE MOTIVES OF POLL CONDUCTORS
· EXAMINE QUESTION WORDING
· CHECK TARGET POPULATION & SAMPLING METHOD
· ASSESS SAMPLE SIZE / MARGIN OF ERROR
· COMPARE ACROSS POLLS & LOOK AT POLL AGGREGATORS
· BE REALISTIC IN EXPECTATIONS

Question 14

Define “poll aggregators”.

Answer 14

POLL AGGREGATORS REFERS TO WEBSITES THAT GATHER & AVERAGE THE RESULTS OF MULTIPLE POLLS

Question 15

Define “delegate model of representation” & “trustee model of representation”. What are they ? How do they differ with respect to how they think public opinion should influence government ?

Answer 15

THE DELEGATE MODEL REFERS TO THE VIEW THAT THE REPRESENTATIVE SHOULD FOLLOW THE PREFERENCES OF THE DISTRICT AND THE OPINIONS OF CONSTITUENTS. THE TRUSTEE MODEL REFERS TO THE VIEW THAT THE REPRESENTATIVE SHOULD FOLLOW THEIR OWN JUDGEMENT IN ORDER TO PROMOTE PUBLIC GOOD. DELEGATES HOLD THAT DEMOCRACY IS GOVERNMENT CONTROLLED BY THE PEOPLE. TRUSTEES DISAGREE & SAY THAT IF THAT WERE THE CASE THEN WE NEED A DIRECT DEMOCRACY

Question 16

Define “political predispositions”.

Answer 16

POLITICAL PREDISPOSITIONS REFERS TO ONES PREEXISTING ATTITUDES, VALUES, BELIEFS, & SOCIAL IDENTITIES THAT CONDITION HOW ONE FORMULATES OPINIONS ABOUT PUBLIC AFFAIRS

Question 17

Define “political socialization”. How does it relate to “political predispositions” ?

Answer 17

POLITICAL SOCIALISATION REFERS TO THE PROCESS BY WHICH OUR SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT LEADS US TO DEVELOP VALUES, ATTITUDES OR BELIEFS, & SOCIAL IDENTITIES THAT SHADE ORIENTATION TOWARDS GOVERNMENT & POLITICS. OUR SOCIAL EXPOSURE IS SOMETHING THAT CAN INFLUENCE OUR POLITICAL PREDISPOSITIONS

Question 18

Define “funnel of causality”. How does it relate to “socialization” ?

Answer 18

THE “FUNNEL OF CASUALITY” REFERS TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES ON POLITICAL ATTITUDES. OVER A LIFETIME, THE FACTORS INFLUENCING US BECOME FEWER / LIMITED

Question 19

What, according to the textbook, is the most influential agent of socialization on children ?

Answer 19

FAMILY

Question 20

Be able to describe, in terms of “rational ignorance”, why Americans tend to have low levels of political knowledge. Why, according to the concept of rational ignorance, do these two factors influence levels of knowledge : interest in politics & party identification ?

Answer 20

RATIONAL IGNORANCE REFERS TO WHEN AMERICANS DO NOT BECOME INFORMED ABOUT POLITICS UNLESS THEY ARE PREDISPOSED TOWARDS BEING HIGHLY INTERESTED IN POLITICS & STRONGLY IDENTIFY WITH ONE OF THE TWO MAJOR POLITICAL PARTIES, SINCE MOST DO, THEY STAY UNINFORMED

Question 21

Define “heuristics”. How does it apply to individuals that are not informed about politics ?

Answer 21

HEURISTICS REFERS TO INFORMATION SHORTCUTS IN ORDER TO GUESS OR INFER WHAT SOMEONE’S OPINION WOULD BE IF THEY HAD TIME TO BECOME BETTER INFORMED

Question 22

How does the state of the economy influence how people feel about the government & politicians ?

Answer 22

WHEN THE ECONOMY GOES DOWN, THE PEOPLE DISAPPROVE OF WHOEVER IS IN OFFICE ( & VICE VERSA )

Question 23

Define “media”.

Answer 23

MEDIA REFERS TO THE MEANS OF MASS COMMUNICATION LIKE NEWSPAPERS, MAGAZINES, RADIO, TELEVISION, & THE INTERNET, & JOURNALISTS, EDITORS, NEWS ORGANIZATIONS, ETC. WHO USE THE CHANNELS TO INFORM THE PUBLIC

Question 24

According to the textbook, the mediating role of the media has always been of concern. Make sure to understand what is meant by “mediating role” & the two general reasons it is of concern.

Answer 24

THE “MEDIATING ROLE” REFERS TO WHEN THE MEDIA MEDIATES BETWEEN POWERFUL AUTHORITIES & THE PEOPLE, & THE CONCERN COMES FROM THE POTENTIAL TO ENLIGHTEN OR MISLEAD THE PUBLIC

Question 25

The textbook claims the media can potentially mislead the public either when it is *free from government control* or when it is *controlled by the government*. **Make sure to understand these two different ways media can mislead the public.**

Answer 25

THE GOVERNMENT CAN *CONTROL THE MEDIA BY USING PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES TO MISLEAD, CONFUSE, DECEIVE, & TIGHTEN CONTROL OVER THE PEOPLE* & *THE MEDIA FALLS DUE TO ITS OWN BIASES OR ERRORS THAT MISLEAD THE PUBLIC (FREE FROM GOVERNMENT CONTROL)*

Question 26

Define **"unmediated communication"**.

Answer 26

**UNMEDIATED COMMUNICATION** REFERS TO *THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE VIA SOCIAL MEDIA TO THE PUBLIC WITHOUT TRADITIONAL MEDIA FILTERS*

Question 27

Make sure to know and understand the **“upside”** & **“downside”** of unmediated communication according to the textbook.

Answer 27

**UPSIDE** · *POLITICIANS CAN ESCAPE THE UNFAIR / INACCURATE PORTRAYALS OF BIASES WITHIN THE MEDIA* **DOWNSIDE** · *POLITICIANS ESCAPE SCRUTINY FROM JOURNALISTS*

Question 28

Which amendment of the U.S. Constitution & which section of the Georgia Constitution provide protections for the freedom of the press ?

Answer 28

*FREEDOM OF THE PRESS* IS PROTECTED IN **1ˢᵗ AMENDMENT** OF THE **US CONSTITUTION** **SECTION ONE** OF THE **GA CONSTITUTION**

Question 29

Where does the term **“the press”** come from ? *HINT : It has to do with Johannes Gutenberg*

Answer 29

The Printing Press

Question 30

What does **“freedom of the press”** typically mean today ?

Answer 30

**"FREEDOM OF THE PRESS"** REFERS TO *THE PRESS IS THE ADDITIONAL TYPES OF COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY LIKE RADIO, TELEVISION, & INTERNET & THE GROUP OF PEOPLE LIKE JOURNALISTS WHO INVESTIGATE THE GOVERNMENT*

Question 31

What, according to the textbook, are the **“TWO vital functions a free press and independent media play in democracy”** ?

Answer 31

1 ) PRESS INVESTIGATIONS OF GOVERNMENT WRONGDOINGS 2 ) FACILITATION OF PUBLIC COMMENTARY & DEBATE OVER PUBLIC INTEREST

Question 32

What is the **“watchdog role”** of the press ?

Answer 32

THE **"WATCHDOG ROLE"** OF THE PRESS REFERS TO *ALERTING THE PUBLIC ABOUT WRONGDOINGS*

Question 33

Define the **“marketplace of ideas”**.

Answer 33

THE **"MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS"** REFERS TO *THE FACILITATION OF PUBLIC COMMENTARY & DEBATE OVER PUBLIC INTEREST & REFINE CITIZENS’ JUDGEMENT ABOUT IMPORTANT MATTERS*

Question 34

How do the "watchdog role" & the "marketplace of ideas" concepts relate to the two vital democratic functions of the free press mentioned previously ?

Answer 34

THEY MAKE UP THE IMPORTANCE OF **"FREEDOM OF THE PRESS"**

Question 35

How, according to the textbook, can social media provide a third democratic function ?

Answer 35

SOCIAL MEDIA HELPS TO COORDINATE COLLECTIVE POLITICAL ACTION

Question 36

What is happening to local newspapers today & what impact is this having on the **"watchdog role"** of the media at the local level of government ?

Answer 36

LOCAL NEWSPAPERS ARE STRUGGLING TO REMAIN FINANCIALLY STABLE & NEWSROOM EMPLOYMENT IS **DECLINING BY 50%** & IMPERILING THE **"WATCHDOG ROLE"** OF MEDIA

Question 37

The rise of the Information Revolution accompanied by the proliferation of cable news has helped create a political knowledge gap in the United States & elsewhere. How does the textbook describe this process ?

Answer 37

THE USAGE OF SOFT MEDIA PRESENTS THE NEWS IN A MORE ENTERTAINING MANNER THAT CAN ATTRACT YOUNGER VIEWERS

Question 38

Define **“citizen journalism”**.

Answer 38

**CITIZENS JOURNALISM** REFERS TO *CITIZENS USING THEIR RECORDING DEVICES TO CAPTURE EVENTS & POST THEM ON THE INTERNET*

Question 39

Net neutrality has been an important issue in the past decade. Define **"net neutrality"**. What is the debate around it ? How did the Obama & the Trump administration each approach the issue ?

Answer 39

**NET NEUTRALITY** REFERS TO *THE IDEA THAT INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDERS MUST TREAT ALL WEB TRAFFIC EQUALLY & CAN'T CHARGE DIFFERENT RATES OR DISCRIMINATE AGAINST DIFFERENT WEBSITES IN ANY WAY*. THE ISP's OPPOSE DUE TO WANTING TO CHARGE DIFFERING RATES. **OBAMA ADMINISTRATION** WANTED TO *FORTIFY NET NEUTRALITY RULES* & **TRUMP** *OVERTURNED IT & ENDED IT*

Question 40

What is Section 230 ? Why is it controversial in today’s social media environment ?

Answer 40

**SECTION 230** STATES THAT *ONLINE PLATFORMS CAN'T BE HELD RESPONSIBLE OR SUED BY POSTS MADE BY USERS*. THIS IS **CONTROVERSIAL** BECAUSE *SOME WANT THE LAW TO BE MITIGATED WITHOUT COMPROMISING THE FREE EXCHANGE OF IDEAS*

Question 41

Be sure to know & understand each of the following types of media effects (& how they differ from each other) : agenda setting, priming, & framing

Answer 41

**AGENDA SETTING** · *COVERING SOME EVENTS & ISSUES MORE THAN OTHERS* **PRIMING** · *MEDIA AFFECTS HOW WE THINK ABOUT AN ISSUE BY HIGHLIGHTING CERTAIN ASPECTS* **FRAMING** · *MEDIA INFLUENCES HOW WE THINK ABOUT AN ISSUE BY LEADING US TO UNCONSCIOUSLY BRING CERTAIN CONSIDERATIONS TO THE TOP OF OUR HEADS WHEN EVALUATING THE ISSUE*

Question 42

How does social media agenda setting differ from the traditional agenda setting of television news, newspapers, etc. ?

Answer 42

ALGORITHMS INFLUENCE THE AGENDA. THE TRADITIONAL NEWS AGENDA WAS BASED IN EDITORIAL DECISIONS OF WHAT SHOULD BE POSTED

Question 43

Define the main characteristics of **"thematic framing"** & **"episodic framing"** ? Be sure to be able compare each type of frame.

Answer 43

**THEMATIC FRAMING** UNDERSTANDS *THE CAUSES OF EVENTS & PERCEIVES THEM RELATIVE TO BROADER, LONG-TERM TRENDS & PATTERNS*. **EPISODIC FRAMING** LEADS *THE NEWS CONSUMER TO REACT TO AN EVENT IN A VISCERAL & EMOTIONAL WAY*

Question 44

Define **“ideological bias”**.

Answer 44

**IDEOLOGICAL BIAS** REFERS TO *THE SLANTING OF COVERAGE OF ONE OR MORE IDEOLOGICAL / PARTISAN ORIENTATIONS & AGAINST OTHERS*

Question 45

Which ideological group (liberals or conservatives) more often claims the mainstream media to be ideologically biased against them ?

Answer 45

CONSERVATIVES

Question 46

The textbook recommends exposing oneself to an **"ideologically diverse"** set of information sources. What does it claim are advantages of doing that ?

Answer 46

DEVELOPING A RICHER UNDERSTANDING OF ISSUES MAKING SOUNDER JUDGEMENTS RESPECTIVE DISCUSSIONS & DEBATES

Question 47

The textbook also recommends relying only on sources that have earned reputations for factual accuracy, credibility, & trustworthiness. This is how you can avoid both **"misinformation"** & **"disinformation"**. Make sure to know the definitions of those two terms.

Answer 47

**MISINFORMATION** IS *FALSE INFORMATION* **DISINFORMATION** IS *A FORM OF PROPAGANDA INTENTIONALLY TRYING TO MISLEAD*

Question 48

Competitive market pressures lead news organizations to seek to both reduce the cost of producing news stories & (in order to raise advertising revenue) produce news stories that attract a large audience. How do these two factors (cost pressures & the need to attract revenue) explain why news organizations can fallshort of the aspiration of providing relevant & useful information that helps citizens make wise & just decisions ?

Answer 48

THE **"PURPOSE OF JOURNALISM"** IS TO *PROVIDING CITIZENS WITH THE INFORMATION THEY NEED TO MAKE THE BEST POSSIBLE DECISIONS ABOUT THEIR LIVES, THEIR COMMUNITIES, THEIR SOCIETIES, & THEIR GOVERNMENTS*. SIMPLY REPORTING TRUE INFORMATION IS NOT SUFFICIENT FOR JOURNALISM, BUT RATHER, IT NEEDS TO PROVIDE RELEVANT & USEFUL INFORMATION THAT GUIDES CITIZENS IN MAKING WISE & JUST DECISIONS. THE CLAIM THAT THE NEWS MEDIA IS AFFLICTED BY MARKET BIAS IS A CLAIM THAT THE MEDIA OFTEN FALLS SHORT OF THIS STANDARD DUE TO THE NEED TO CONTEND WITH COMPETITIVE MARKET PRESSURES

Question 48

Define **"market bias"**.

Answer 48

**MARKET BIAS** REFERS TO THE *PERVASIVE PHENOMENON INFLUENCING NEWS MEDIA CONTENT*