XIA BIO107 Flashcards
(211 cards)
1
Q
Define chemical level
A
The building blocks of the body
2
Q
Define cellular level
A
basic structural and functional units of the body
3
Q
Define tissue level
A
groups of cells that work together to do a particular function
4
Q
Define organ level
A
group of TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT tissues to do a specific function
5
Q
Define system level
A
group of similar organs to carry out similar functions
6
Q
Organismal level
A
All the parts of a body to constitute a living organism
7
Q
list all the parts of the integumentary system
A
Every Demon Has Some Goblin Slave Giving Biscuits to Nigerians, Hippies, Fatmen, Hitmen. Epidermis, Dermis Hypodermis Sebaceous gland Sweat gland, Breast tissue, Nails Hair follicle Hairs
8
Q
List all 11 systems
A
I don't usually reveal my emotions so nobody remembers my life crises. Integumentary Digestive Urinary Respiritory Muscular Endocrine Skeletal Nervous Reproductive lLymphatic cardiovascular
9
Q
Function of the epidermis
A
Outer covering of body-hence protect skin
Covers organs
photosynthesis-i.e, vitamin D production
Think superman-spacehippy with skin of steel and how he can photosynthesise
Integumentary
10
Q
Function of the Dermis
A
Layer below epidermis,
Feed epidermis nutrients, strength, glands.
Basically a sumo Wrestler. Feeds Quite strong, sweat=glandular function
Integumentary
11
Q
Function of the Hair follicles
A
It is innervated-should be nerfed-so it makes you sense stuff,
Integumentary
12
Q
Sebaceous cell
A
Lubricates hair shaft and epidermis,
helps remove waste
Integumentary
13
Q
Sweat glands
A
Thermoregulation
Evaporative cooling
Integumentary
Just think function of A2 sweat
14
Q
Nails
A
Think-
just protects digits
Integumentary
15
Q
Sensory receptors
A
Namesake
detects senses-i.e, pressure, heat, touch, temperature pain, don’t bother learning senses in mc.
Integumentary
16
Q
Hypodermis
A
fatty yellow layer- attaches skin to deep layers.
So deep that apart from the purposes of this course, its not integumentary
n.b, the hair starts at the hypodermis
17
Q
What systems is Breast tissue and why is it a modified sweat gland?
A
Reproductive system, cuz babies drink from breast tissues to create another baby or some shit
Integumentary system, cuz its a modified sweat gland- modified cuz it dosen’t produce sweat
18
Q
function:Skeletal muscle
A
heat production-shiverring
“Skeletal movement”
Protection= think superman again, it protects soft tissue and shit
Control entrances and exits to digestive and respiritory and urinary system- wtf…ok then
19
Q
function Axial muscle
A
Support and positioning your axial skeleton, the axial muscles being the ones in your cores, your abs
20
Q
function Appendicular muscle
A
think appendage, i.e, limbs,
These are muscles on your limbs, and support and move
21
Q
function Tendons
A
Bone to MUS-CUL, basically it connects these two things together, its like glue,
But its formal function is to translate contractile forces into tasks
22
Q
Aponeuroses
A
Apo=from
neuroses=nerves
muscle to muscle
Translate contractile forces into tasks
23
Q
Cartilage
and types of cartilage for this course
A
bone interfaces,
hyaline, blue joints
fibrocartilage, fiber, strong, discs
24
Q
axial bone
A
protect and support core
25
appendicular skeleton
limb bones, support and positioning of limbs
26
function of red bone marrow
red blood cell production
27
function of yellow bone marrow
fat cell stores,
| fat=yellow
28
function of brain
complex integrative activities,
i.e, thinking about an action before doing it,
can be voluntary and involuntary
29
Spinal cord
relays info to and from brain,
| performs less complicated integrative activities
30
Complete the sentence,
| All nerves that senses but the optic nerves
are part of both CNS and PNS
31
what is in CNS
brain and spinal cord
32
what is in PNS
basically every other nerve outside cns,
| links CNS and other sense organs
33
What are the list of glands and organs we need to know for the endocrine system
```
TPPAPG
PinaPple Apple Pen Guy Killed The Pop Theme
Thymus
Pineal,
Pituitary/hypothalamus,thyroid,
Adrenal glands
parathyroid,
Gonads
kidneys
pancreas
gonads
thyroid
```
34
Pineal gland
Circadian Rhythm
| Pinus=penis=gotta pee in the morning-the only thing that makes teenagers awake.
35
Pituitary/hypothalamus
regulates growth fluid, control other endocrine glands
Think of how pituitary function in puberty gives rise to hormone cascades
36
Thyroid gland
think about how thyroid problems cause metabolism problems, and how related calcium is related to metabolism. Calcium acts as a neurotransmitter, more calcium, more signals, more action, hence more metabolism-n.b, not actual function but mnemonic.
It controls calcium levels and metabolic rates,
37
Parathyroid
DABAN thyroid, can only do half of what real thyroid does,
| only maintains calcium levels.
38
thyMUS
causes maturation of lymphocytes
| optiMUS prime, defender of cybertron
39
What is the function of adrenal glands(3)
Adrenaline,
Water and mineral balance(1)
Tissue metabolism, (2)
Cardio and respiritory function(3)
40
Kidneys (3)
Increases bloodpressure
controls calcium levels
red blood cell production
41
Pancreas function in the endocrine system
Glucose control
42
Gonads
sex characteristics and reproduction
43
Anterior pituitary gland
secretes growth hormone that targets Liver that secretes insulin like growth hormone
44
Acromegaly
basically too much growth hormone in adults, causing them to look like neanderthals
45
gigantism
usually in childhood, too much growth hormone making them huge
46
What are some of the general features of the lymphatic system
Carry lymph fluid, (water+protein) and lymph from peripheral tissues to veins of cardiovascular system,
The heart pumps blood, but is not too good with the return of blood, the lumphatic fluid picks up that extra fluid and throws it back,
"the lymphatic capillaries collect excess tissue fluid that did not return to the capillaries and conducts it back to the blood stream out the subclavian vessels
47
What systems is the thymus part of
the lymphatic/immune system and the endocrine system
48
what is lymphatic fluid
fat and fatty acids from gut
| white/yellow stuff-fat
49
which 2cells carry out the immune response in this curriculum
B cells, T cells
50
Spleen
```
Monitors circulation blood cells
Engulfs pathogens
Recycle red blood cells
Stimulates immune response
Like are large lymph node
```
51
What does the thymus do in the lymphatic system
controls and maintains development for T lymphocytes
| T for thymus
52
What are the main organs associated with the lymphatic system
Tonsils
Thymus
Spleen-
Thanos is THE SHIT
53
Major functions of blood
```
Transport of Oxygen and carbon
dioxide
Transport nutrients and hormones
Remove waste
Temperature regulation
Defence against illness (immune
cells)
Acid base balance (-HCO3)
```
54
Functions of the heart
propels blood and maintains blood pressure
| it the pump
55
Function of the blood vessels
arteries=to heart
veins=from heart
capillaries=diffusion between blood and interstitial tissues
56
Respiritory tract components
```
Neptulon is The Least Playable. Neptulon= drowning=respiritory.
Nasal cavity
Trachea
Larynx
pharynx
```
bronchi
lungs
57
function of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses
filter, warm , humidify air and detect smells
58
Pharynx function in the respiritory system
Conducts air to Larynx,
Pharynx is in front of larynx because P =Phunnel to the larynx
59
Larynx
lalalalalala...LAAA!!!...LAAA!!!....LALArynx
Protects opening to trachea
and contains vocal cords
for vocalisation
60
Trachea
cartilage-conducts air
61
bronchi
conducts air between trachea and lungs
62
Lungs
gas exchange of oxygen+CO2
| some a2 chem will teach you that the ratio between CO2 AND Oxygen regulates acidity and baseness of blood
63
List the components of the digestive system,
catpoo
```
POOS=pharynx, oesophagus,oral cavity, salivary gland
pharynx
Oral cavity
Oesophagus
salivary glands
```
```
my cat Lays Premium Grade Shit Large And Small in my lawn
Pancreas
Gall bladder
Liver
small intestine
Anus
large intestine
```
64
function of gall bladder
concentrates bile
65
function of the pancreas
digestive enzymes
buffers
endocrine cells
66
Oral cavity function
Breaks up food working with teeth and tongue
67
Salivary glands
Buffers and lubricants-enzymes begin digestion
| think of saliva
68
pharynx function in the digestive system
passes Solid food and liquids to the oesophagus
69
oesophagus
delivers food to the sto match
70
sto match function
Secretes acids, enzymes and HORMONES WTF?
| Hermione secretes acids and enzymes.
71
Small intestine
Digestive enzymes, Buffers,+ Hormones absorb nutrients
72
Liver
secretes bile and regulate nutrients in the blood
73
Gall bladder
concentrates bile
"yargh, so ye got te gall ta challenge me boy??"
means his guts are quite concentrated
74
function of the pancreas in the digestive system
digestive enzymes, buffers, endocrine cells
75
Large intestine
water reabsorption
76
Anus
waste storage and removal
77
What is the general functions of the urinary system
eliminates excess salts and wastes
78
What does the kidney do the urinary system
forms and concentrate urine
regulate pH
regulate ions
controls blood volume and blood pressure
79
What does the Ureters do
Conduct urine to the bladder
80
Bladder
stores urine prior to urination
81
Urethra
conduct urine outside
82
EPO
dat drug olympians use to be supermen
EPO, erythropoietin? is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the interstitial fibroblasts in the kidney
and the kidney targets bone marrow, bone marrow undergoes erthropoiesis, the increased activity of RBC stem cells means more RBC, more oxygen carrying capacity, better performance
83
list the 4 major tissues
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
84
What does the epithelial tissue do
covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, tubes, cavities, ducts, forms glands,
it Protects, filtrates, secretes, absorbs and excretes, its atraxa
85
Connective tissue
Cells in a matrix of fibres, and ground substance including bone and blood, it protects and supports, binds organs together, stores energy , transports blood
86
Muscle tissue
contractile tissues,
| movement
87
What is the general functions of the epithelial tissue (3)
covers body surface
lines hollow organs, cavities, ducts
forms glands
88
how is epithelial tissue held together
junctions
89
What are cell junctions
are contact points between plasma membranes of tissue cells
90
What are cytoskeletons
basically a structure that helps cells maintain their shape and internal organisation and provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out essential functions like division and movement
for the purposes of the course, that just means microfilaments and intermediate filaments
91
What are microfilaments
bundles beneath cell membrane and cytoplasm,
they provide, strength, ability to alter cell shape and link cytoplasm to membrane, tie cells together, muscle contraction
92
What does intermediate filaments do
Provide strength, they move materials through cytoplasm
93
Endo The Bloody
Endothelium,
Blood vessels
Lymphatic vessels
94
Atraxa, The Overplayed Mediocre Virgin
```
type-non-stratified squamous epithelium
Mouth and tongue
throat
Vagina
anus
oesophagus
```
95
Miso, the pineapple apple pen guy
Mesothelium, pleural, pericardial, peritoneal, a type of simple squamous epithelium
96
Carnivorous Cube with thic penis as brain
simple cuboidal
Thyroid
Small ducts of glands
Pancreas ducts
97
Da ghee ghee
Simple columnar,
ducts
gut mucosa
gall bladder
98
Super Sexy, Ultra beef blob
```
ciliated simple columnar
Sinuses
Spinal cord (central canal)
Uterine fallopian tubes'
Bronchiole
Brain ventricles
```
99
Lyra, Ultimate Advantage Elemental
```
Pseudostratified columnar
larger ducts of glands,non ciliated
epididymus,non ciliated
urethra, (male),nonciliated
airways (ciliated)
```
100
location of transitional epithelia
bladder only
101
Stratified columnar
anal mucosal membrane
Urethra
eye
some large glands
102
Stratified cuboidal
Ducts of adult sweat glands, oesophagal glands, male urethra
103
```
Tight junctions (5)
What is its main property
```
```
• Individual sealing strands
transmembrane
• More strands the tighter the junction
• Many proteins involved but two key
ones: claudins & occludins
• Join the cytoskeletons of adjacent
cells e.g. via ZO-1 to actin
• Keep cell polarity by preventing
migration of proteins between apical
and basal surfaces
```
104
```
Adherens junction (7)
what is it called
where does the plaque layer do
What does the cadherins do
what does the catenins do
WHAT is the main use of an adherens junction
```
* “Belt desmosome” or adhesion belts (zonula adherens) in some epithelial cells
* Others cells are less continuous and are called “adhesion plaques”
* More basal located than tight junctions
* Have a plaque layer of proteins on the inside of the cell to join actin to cadherins
* Cadherins (span the gap)
* Catenins link the Cadherins to Actin (microfilament in cell cytoplasm)
* Adherens junctions prevent cell separation from tension forces like in contractile forces
105
```
Desmosome
features
what does it do
give an example of what they do
what does the cadherin do
what does the keratin do
where is it mostly found
```
* Lateral wall
* Have “plaque” just like adherens junctions
* Resist shearing forces
* Example: they bind muscle cells
* Cadherin spans the gap
* BUT link cell surface to Keratin (a cytoskeletal intermediate filament)
* Keratin spans from one desmosome to another on other side of the cell – structural integrity
* Most common in skin epithelium and cardiac cells of the heart to prevent pulling apart
106
Gap junctions
what does it do
what kinda molecules does it let through
```
• Direct connection between cells (link between cytoplasm)
• 6 connexIn protein molecules form
connexOn or hemichannel
• 2 hemichannels make up gap junction
• Allow ~1kDa molecules through
```
107
Hemi desmosome
What does the keratin do
what is different with hemidesmosome to other junction types
```
• Connect epithelia to basement
membrane
• Links cellular basal intermediate
filament (Keratin) to basement
membrane
• Hemidesmosome
– (INTEGRIN linker protein
(instead of cadherin) binds to
LAMININ in the BM and to
Keratin intermediate filament in
cytoplasm)
```
108
what are the two components of the basement membrane
reticular lamina
| basal lamina
109
How exactly is the basal lamina made and what are its contents
secreted by epithelial cells,
| collagen,laminin,other proteoglycans, glycoprotein etc
110
How exactly is the reticular lamina made
| and what are its contents
produced by cells called fibroblasts
| contain fibronectin and collagen
111
where is the basement membrane found?
The basement membrane is thus found between the epithelium
| and connective tissue
112
How does the epithelial cells get its nutrients
```
The exchange of
nutrients and wastes
takes place by
diffusion from
vessels in the
connective tissue
```
113
What does the basement membrane do(4)
Supports the overlying epithelium
provides a surface along which epithelial cells migrate during growth and wound healing
acts as a physical barrier
participates in the filtration of substances in the kidney
114
Melanoma basement
basement membrane can prevent melanoma from metastasizing in the cell
115
```
What are the warning signs of melanoma
A
B
C
D
```
The ABCD of melanoma warning signs:
• A for asymmetry: one half of a mole doesn’t match the other;
• B for border irregularity: edges are ragged, notched or blurred;
• C for colour: mix of brown, black, red, white, or blue;
• D for diameter greater than 6 mm.
116
What are the two kinds of epithelial tissue
1) Coverring and lining epithelia
| 2) glandular epithelia
117
What is the function of covering and lining epithelia
Form the Outer Covering of the skin and some internal
organs.
• Form the Inner Lining of blood vessels, ducts and body
cavities, and the interior of the respiratory, digestive,
urinary and reproductive systems
118
Function: simple cuboidal
secretion and absorption
119
Function:nonciliated simple columnar
can have microvilli, secretion, lubrication and absorption,
| generally they have goblet cells interspersed.
120
Function: ciliated simple columnar
have goblet cells
| synchronous movement of the cilia assists the movement of mucus and oocytes and foreign objects
121
function: stratified squamous epithelium (3)
located where chemical and mechanical stresses are severe.
protects against microbes
In some places where mechanical stress and dehydration major issue
apical cells are packed with keratin – makes the surface tough and
waterproof
122
function: (non keratinized) stratified cuboidal epithelium
protection from abrasion, microbes, and defense from microbes, "require secretions from glands"
123
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
1) what are the subtypes
2) what are the differences between the 2 subtypes?
3) What are the functions?
1) there is ciliated and nonciliated,
2) nonciliated does not have goblet cells
3) ciliated secrete mucus and move it
4) nonciliated mostly has protection purposes
124
Main function of transitional epithelial
change shape from cuboidal to flat, and allows stretching
125
Definition of a gland
consists of a SINGLE CELL, or GROUP OF CELLS that secretes substances into ducts, onto a surface, into blood
126
Definition of an endocrine gland
a gland that directly secretes into the blood via traversing interstitial fluid
127
Definition of an exocrine gland
Secrete into ducts that
empty onto the surface
of a covering or lining
epithelium.
128
What is the range of an endocrine gland
generally distant and strong effects
| thinking about how blood travels all over the body, it can be distant
129
What is the range of an exocrine gland
generally local-
| thinking about how a ramp can only get you so far
130
What is the function of connective tissue
1. It binds, supports and strengthens other body tissues.
2. A major transport system of the body (blood is a connective tissue).
3. A major site of stored energy reserves
(fat or adipose tissue is a
connective tissue).
131
Where isn't connective tissue found
not on body surfaces
132
What is extracellular matrix found
Ground substance
| protein fibres
133
What is ground substance composed of
Ground substance is composed of a mixture of :
• Water
• Proteins (gelatine in jelly!)
• Polysaccharides (sugars)
134
how do you form a proteoglycan
GAGS join with core proteins to form proteoglycans
135
What are some features of GAG
They are long and unbranched
| have a repeating disaccharide unit
136
list all 4 sulphated GAGs
dermatan sulfate
keratan sulfate
chondroiten sulfate
Heparin Sulfate
137
Where does hyaluronic acid bind to
does not directly bind to protein backbone, but binds to the various PGs
138
What is unusual about hyaluronic acid
The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronic acid is unusual in that it is not
sulphated nor covalently bound to a core protein
139
What is the main function of GAGs?
Collectively, the glycosaminoglycans trap water to make the
| ground substance more jelly-like
140
What is the main function of hyaluronic acid
Hyaluronic Acid: viscous slippery substance binds cells
| together, lubricates joints and maintains shape of eyeball
141
Tell me what produces hyaluronidase, and why is it made?
Hyaluronidase:
• produced by white blood cells, sperm and some
bacteria.
• This makes ground substance more liquid so they
can move more easily in it or makes access to the
egg easier for sperm
142
What is the function of chondroiten
support and provide the adhesive
| features of cartilage, bone, skin, blood vessels.
143
```
Give me 4 features of Abnormal Periorbital ECM and
thyroid disease (Exopthalmos)
```
• Most common in younger women
• Goitre (swollen thyroid gland)
• Autoimmune over-activation of thyroid (goitre)
• Autoimmune action on fibroblasts in ECM of eye (exophthalmos)The deposition of glycosaminoglycans and the influx of 14
wate
r increase the orbital contents
So it's basically the result of abnormality in the ground substance (extracellular matrix) of the eye orbit. This abnormality
is due to the body causing an autoimmune action on the fibroblasts which cause an increase in water and GAGs in ground substance of the ECM in the eye orbit. As a result of this increase in ground substance, it causes a build up of pressure in the eyes which can be observed as the bulging of the eyes (pushed forward almost out of socket)
144
features of collagen fibres (5)
Very strong, but flexible to resist pulling forces
Features vary in different tissues
Collagen is very abundant, 25% of your body,
very common in bone,ligaments, cartilage, and tendons
found in parallel bundles
145
```
Reticular fibres (7)
what is it made of
what makes these fibres
what is the function
where does it form in an epithelium
other characteristics
where exactly is it most prevalent
```
• Composed of collagen with coating of glycoprotein
• Collagen in fine bundles with coating of glycoprotein
(more protein than sugar)
• Made by fibroblasts
• Provide strength and support
• Form part of the basement membrane
• Thinner, branching - spreads through tissue.
• Form networks in vessels and through tissues especially
adipose tissue, nerve fibres, smooth muscle tissues
As you can imagine, branching makes it form networks better, and thereby, think of what needs lots of branching.
networks mean lots of crap, hence it makes sense that it provides strength, its like a mesh.
adipose, solid fat
smooth muscle tissue, quite strong
nerve fibres, much branched as well and most likely needs to have some form of protection
146
```
features of Elastin fibres (5)
how thin is it in comparison to collagen fibres
does it network
what is the main protein component
why is fibrillin on collagen fibres
what is its main features
list4 places it is found
```
• Thinner than collagen fibres
• Fibrous network
• Consist of the protein elastin surrounded by the
glycoprotein fibrillin to give more strength and stability.
• Can be stretched 150% without breaking
• Found in skin, blood vessels and lung.
147
Explain Marfan syndrome
Fibrillin binds and "neutralises" the growth hormone, Transforming
Growth Factor beta(TGFb)
In Marfan syndrome, Fibrillin is not normal, so it does not bind to TGFb, and its not as strong as normal
This means, lots of unchecked growth factor
and since fibrillin is important to strength and stability of elastin, the elastin is not too strong, so these people tend to have problems relating to weakness of elastin, i.e they might get a heart attck more likely.
Individuals with Marfan Syndrome are: usually
tall, long limbed, and often with a chest deformity
(e.g. protruding or collapsed sternum). Normal life
span but need medical vigilance to control BP etc
They may have weakened heart valves and arterial
walls, which can be life threatening.
Occurs in about 1 in 20,000 live births.
148
Give the function and location of fibroblasts
They are widely distributed in connective tissue and they are migratory,
Secrete components of
the matrix (fibres and
ground substance)
149
Give the function and location of adipocytes
They are under skin and around organs, they tend to store fats in the form of trighlycerides
150
Give all the nicknames of macrophages, and give a list of their functions
Can generally be referred to as histiocytes
There are 2 major subtypes, the ones that wanderring, and the ones that are fixxed
The wandering ones don't have a special name, and they are fiund at wound sites-generally in connective tissue
the fixxed ones have special names depending on where they are
Dust cells for the lungs
kupffer cells for the liver
Langerhans cells for the skin
they are phagocytic
151
Plasma cells
From B lymphocytes, produce antibodies
Many connective tissue sites but especially in gut and lung, salivary glands, lymph nodes, spleen, red bone marrow
152
Mast cells
produce histamine that dilates vessels alongside blood vessels- inflammatory response
They are found alongside blood vessels
153
leucocytes
WHite blood cells, migrate out from blood
154
List the 2 embryonic tissue types
mesenchymal
| mucous
155
List the 3 kinds of adult tissue types
connective tissue proper
fluid connective tissue
supporting connective tissue
156
what are two kinds of connective tissue proper
dense and loose connective tissue
157
what are 2 kinds of fluid connective tissue
blood and lymph
158
what are 2 kinds of supporting connective tissue
cartilage, bone
159
what are the 3 kinds of dense tissue
1) elastic
2) dense regular
3) dense irregular
160
WHAT ARE THE 3 kinds of loose tissue
areolar,
adipose
reticular
161
What are the properties of loose connective tissue
Many cells , fewer fibres in the matrix
162
What are the properties of areolar tissue
```
Three types of fibres are present
(collagen, reticular and elastic).
Widely distributed around almost every
structure. Like a “packing material”.
Strength, Elasticity, Support.
```
163
What are the properties of adipose tissue
Adipocytes dominant.
Central triglyceride droplet.
Found with areolar connective tissue (incl. fibroblasts).
White adipose (energy storage) and Brown adipose (heat
production).
Insulation. Energy source. Temperature control
164
reticular connective tissue
lots of reticular fibers made of collagen
forms the stroma of many soft organs like the spleen and the lymph nodes
These fibers also help form the basement membrane
they are composed of reticular fibers and reticuar cells
binds smooth muscle tissue cells, filters and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes
165
features of Dense regular tissue
```
Tendons (muscle to bone); Ligaments (bone to
bone); aponeuroses (muscle to muscle).
Regularly arranged collagen
e.g. tendons (pulling along the fibre axis).
Shiny white colour;
Collagen fibres are not a living tissue;
Slow healing
Attachment.
```
166
features of dnese irregular tissue
made of collagen fibers, irregularly arranged with a few fibroblasts
orivudes tensile strength,
found like in the skin where the torsional forces are irregular
167
features of dense elastic tissue
contains predominantly elastic fibers with fibroblasts between them
lung tissue, wallsof elastic arteries, trachea bronchial tubes, ligaments of penis, vertebrae
allows stretching of various organs, is strong and the recoil to original shape after stretching
168
Description of the mesenchymal tissue
gives rise to all other connective tissue, consists of connective tissue cells in a semifluid ground substance containing reticular fibers
169
description of the mucous cell tissue
has widely scattered fibroblasts in the jelly like substance
| featured as support to the umbilical cord
170
Description of fibrocartilage
Fibrocartilage has chondrocytes among thick bundles of collagen fibers
located in intervertebral discs, menisci of the knee
portionf of tendons that insert into cartilage
pubic symphysisThey join structures together
they are the strongets of all cartilages
resists compression and shearing forces and absorbs shock
171
What are bones and what are they composed of?
bones are organs composed of several connective tissue types
172
what are the two kinds of bone tissue and what kind of tissue are they
connective tissue and they are either spongy or compact
173
What is compact bone
Outer layer of bone and forms the shaft of long bones.
It is also known as cortical bone.
Compact bone is composed of many rod-shaped units known as
either Osteons or Haversian systems (see soon)
stores calcium and phosphorus
174
What is spongy bone
Porous inner bone tissue that lies underneath compact bone.
Also known as Cancellous bone
Lacks osteons
has two kinds, red marrow (blood) and yellow marrow(fat/triglycerides)
175
What are the 4 cell kinds in bone
Osteogenic cells
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoclast
176
What are Osteogenic cells
```
mesenchymal stem cells
that develop, starts to lay
down collagen; become
trapped and become
osteoblasts.
```
177
What are Osteoblasts
```
Osteoblasts: boneforming
cells. Lay down
more collagen,
mineralization process
starts.
```
lay down new bone
178
What are Osteocytes
Osteocytes: mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts trapped within the
extracellular matrix. Maintain bone tissue. Involved in exchange of nutrients
and wastes. Have gap junctions.
179
What are osteoclasts
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4. Osteoclasts:
• Large,
• Multinucleated cells
• Formed from the fusion of blood
monocytes
• Break-down bone
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Remodel bone
180
Draw an Osteon
Canaliculi
Lamellae
Lacuna
Central canal
181
What does a chondroblast do
s lay down hyaline
| cartilage callus
182
What is the function of a canaliculi
“minute canals” (containing EC fluid and
minute osteocytic processes) that radiate from lacunae
and provide routes for oxygen, nutrients and waste.
183
What is the function of a Lacunae
they are small surfaces, like lakes
| that contain osteocytes
184
What is the function of a lamellae
concentric rings of mineral salts for hardness (e.g.
calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide, which together
form hydroxyapatite) and collagen (for tensile strength)
185
What is function of the haversian (central canal) canal
has bloodvessels, lymphs and nerves
186
list 4 kinds of leucocytes and give their function
i. Neutrophils and monocytes
(macrophages) are
phagocytic, engulfing bacteria.
ii. Basophils (mobile) and Mast cells (immature
circulate; mature are fixed in tissues), release
substances (e.g. histamine) that intensify the
inflammatory reaction.
iii. Eosinophils are effective against certain parasitic
worms and in acute allergic response .
iv. Lymphocytes are involved in the immune
response.
187
What are 3 kinds of muscles
1) skeletal muscle
2) cardiac muscle
3) smooth muscle
188
Skeletal muscle slide
1) how many skeletal muscles are there in the body
2) How are they attached to bones
3) What do they look like under a microscope
4) is contraction voluntary or not voluntary?
5) what is the shape of the fibres
6) what is the smallest muscle and what does it do
7) what is the longest muscle and how long is it
```
i. Skeletal Muscle
• There are ~650 named skeletal muscles in the
body
• Usually attached to bones via tendons.
• Appear striated under the microscope.
• Contraction is under conscious control
(voluntary; sometimes not always - posture)
• Fibres (remember = cells) cylindrical
```
Smallest: 1.25 mm stapedius (stabilizes the smallest
human bone the stapes in the ear; prevents “hyperacusis*”;
tympanic reflex; Bell’s Palsy; facial n)
Longest: up to the 60 cm sartorius (“Checking for
gum!”; hip: flexor, abductor, lateral rotator; knee: flexor).
*Hyperacusis – stapedius n damage - extra loud sound perceptio
189
Why do muscles appear striated
they are due to the highly organised arrangement of myofibrils within cells
190
what are the 2 types of myofibrils
actins thin
and
myosin thick
191
What are sarcomeres
basic functional unit of a myofibril, they are composed of myofilaments
192
Draw and label a myofilament
The thick and thin myofilaments overlap to produce the striations in
the myofibril:
A band: dark, middle part ; contains all the thick filaments
I band: thin filaments, but no thick filaments
H zone: thick filaments, but no thin filaments
M line: middle of sarcomere (holds thick filaments together)
Z disc: passes through centre of I band (between sarcomeres) made up of
“actinins” – that link filaments of adjacent sarcomeres
193
Cardiac muscle
what is its appearance
how are fibres joined
what is one of the prominent junctions it has
what do intercalated discs contain
is it voluntary or involuntary
ii. Cardiac Muscle
Striated. Branched.
Single central nucleus.
Fibres join end-to-end through intercalated discs.
```
Intercalated discs contain:
1. Desmosomes (bind intermediate filaments)
Provide adhesion in contraction
2. Gap junctions (communication)
(co ordinated; rapid conduction).
```
it is involuntary
194
Smooth muscle
where is it located
what is the appearance
is it voluntary or involuntary
is it striated or not striated
is it multinucleated or mono nucleated
What are some of its structural components (myofibirls)
Other notable features
Located in the walls of hollow internal structures
e.g. intestines (peristalsis); blood vessel walls (constriction);also : Iris of eye, reproductive; digestive; respiratory; urinary; skin,erector pili
Short, Small, spindle-shaped, about 30-200 µm long; 3-8 µmthickest in the middle
Involuntary
Non-striated (smooth)
Single central nucleus
• Smooth muscle fibres are non-striated, but still have bundles of
thin (e.g. actin) and thick (e.g myosin) filaments.
• Thin filaments (e.g. actin) attach to “dense bodies”, functionally
similar to Z discs. (Dense body: a major protein is Actinin).
• Intermediate filaments (non-contractile elements) also connect
to dense bodies
During contraction tension is
transmitted to the
intermediate filaments (don’t
contract), and the cell twists
as it contracts about these
stable “rods”.
195
What is the function of the nervous system (6)
maintains homeostasis with the endocrine tissue
initiates voluntary movements
responsible for perception, behavior and memory
detects internal and external stimuli and transfer to CnS
INTEGRATIVE ACTIONS :ANALYSIS AND STORING OF INFORMATION
Motor, stimulation of effectors through the PNS
196
what are the two kinds of cells in nervous tissue
neurons and neuroglia
197
what is the function of a neuron
Have a cell body into which short, branched dendrites convey nerve
impulses (action potentials) and from which a longer, single axon
conducts nerve impulses to another neuron or tissue.
198
Features of a neuron
Do not divide
| High metabolic rate
199
What is the function of an axon
carries the nerve impulse out of the neuron, output portion of neurons
200
what is the function of dendrites
the receiving, imput part of the neuron
201
multipolar neurons
```
• Have 2 or more dendrites
and a single axon.
• Most common neurons in
CNS
• All motor neurons (control
skeletal muscle) are in
this class
• Some of longest (spinal
cord to toe muscles)
```
202
Bipolar neurons
```
• Two distinct processes
– 1 dendritic process (can
branch at tip but not at cell
body)
– And 1 axon
• Has cell body between
axon and dendrite
• Rare and small (30µm)
• Special sense organs
(sight, smell, hearing) relay
information from receptor
to neurons
```
203
unipolar neurons
```
• The dendrites and axon
are continuous
• Cell body off to one side
• Whole thing from where
dendrites converge called
axon
• Most sensory nerves are
unipolar
• Very long (1m) like motor
nerves CNS-toe tip.
```
204
anaxonic neuron
```
• Rare and function
poorly understood
• Anatomy cannot
distinguish dendrites
from axons
• Found in brain and
special sense organs
```
205
```
What is a neuroglia
how common are neuroglias
what is the size of neuroglia
does it propagate action potentials
how often does it divide
```
what are its functions (5)
Found in both CNS and PNS.
• Make up ~50% the volume of the CNS (“glue”).
• Smaller than neurons but more numerous (5-50x)
• Do not propagate action potentials, but can communicate.
• Can divide within the mature nervous system
```
Functions
• Physical structure of nervous tissue
• Repair framework of nervous tissue
• Undertake phagocytosis
• Nutrient supply to Neurons
• Regulate interstitial fluid in neural tissue.
```
206
What are the types of neuroglia
astrocytes, oligodendrocytes
| microglia
207
what are the functions of astrocytes
```
a. Star-shaped; largest; most
numerous of neuroglia.
Syncytium network.
b. Support (have microfilaments)
and repair (scar).
c. Communicate with neurons via
‘gliotransmitters’ e.g. glutamate
d. Maintain environment around
neuron by e.g. regulating ions.
e. Maintain blood-brain barrier
via endothelium. Wrap around
vessels and influence their
permeability
```
208
oligodendrocytes
```
ii. Oligodendrocytes:
– Form insulating
multilayered myelin sheath
( protein lipid layer) around
CNS axons.
– Can myelinate more than
one neuron cell’s axon.
Accelerate the action
potential.
```
209
function of microglia
resident macrophages, , can do phagocytosis
210
ependymal cells
```
• Produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
• Line the Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)-filled
ventricles in the brain and the central
canal of the spinal cord.
• These single layer of predominantly
cuboidal cells have cilia (flow) and
microvilli (sampling).
• Located in ventricles and in other locations
where CSF found.
• CSF mechanical buffer; moves nutrients
and waste
```
211
peripheral nervous system neuroglia
Peripheral Nervous System Neuroglia
i. Schwann cells (“PNS version of CNS oligodendrocyte”): form insulating
myelin sheath around axons or can just support and surround several nonmyelinated
axons. (Note: One Schwann cell per axon for myelination but
more axons/cell if just support).
ii. Satellite cells: surround neuron cell bodies. Support and fluid exchange
(equiv. to astrocytes in CNS).
