عملي Flashcards
(133 cards)
1
Q
What are carbohydrates?
A
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in plants and animals and have important structural and metabolic roles.
Carbohydrates are essential macromolecules in biological systems.
2
Q
What are the chemical characteristics of carbohydrates?
A
Carbohydrates are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydroxy alcohols.
This means they contain multiple hydroxyl groups and a carbonyl group.
3
Q
What are the main categories of carbohydrates?
A
The main categories of carbohydrates are:
* Monosaccharides
* Oligosaccharides
* Polysaccharides
This classification is based on the number of sugar units.
4
Q
What are monosaccharides?
A
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller sugar units.
They are fundamental building blocks for more complex carbohydrates.
5
Q
What are the different types of monosaccharides based on the number of carbon atoms?
A
Types of monosaccharides based on carbon atoms include:
* Trioses
* Tetroses
* Pentoses
* Hexoses
The classification is based on the number of carbon atoms in the sugar molecule.
6
Q
What are the examples of trioses?
A
Examples of trioses include:
* Glyceraldehyde
Triose sugars contain three carbon atoms.
7
Q
What are the examples of tetroses?
A
Examples of tetroses include:
* Erythrose
Tetrose sugars contain four carbon atoms.
8
Q
What are the examples of pentoses?
A
Examples of pentoses include:
* Ribose
Pentose sugars contain five carbon atoms.
9
Q
What are the examples of hexoses?
A
Examples of hexoses include:
* Glucose
* Mannose
* Galactose
Hexose sugars contain six carbon atoms.
10
Q
What are ketoses?
A
Ketoses are monosaccharides that contain a ketone group.
They differ from aldoses, which have an aldehyde group.
11
Q
What are the examples of ketoses?
A
Examples of ketoses include:
* Dihydroxyketone
* Erythrulose
* Ribulose
* Fructose
Ketoses are important in various metabolic pathways.
12
Q
What are disaccharides?
A
Carbohydrates formed by the combination of two monosaccharides
Examples include lactose and sucrose.
13
Q
What are homopolysaccharides?
A
Polysaccharides composed of the same type of monosaccharide
Examples include starch, glycogen, dextrin, cellulose, and inulin.
14
Q
What are heteropolysaccharides?
A
Polysaccharides composed of different types of monosaccharides
Examples include chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid, and heparin.
15
Q
What is the Molisch Test?
A
A sensitive non-specific test for detecting carbohydrate solutions
It is based on the dehydration of carbohydrates by H2SO4 to form aldehydes.
16
Q
What do Benedict’s Test and Fehling’s Test detect?
A
Reducing sugars under alkaline conditions
All monosaccharides and most disaccharides are reducing sugars.
17
Q
What distinguishes reducing monosaccharides from reducing disaccharides?
A
Barfoed’s Test
It controls pH and heating time to differentiate between them.
18
Q
What is Seliwanoff’s Test used for?
A
To differentiate between aldoses and ketoses monosaccharides
Ketoses are dehydrated more rapidly than aldoses.
19
Q
What does Bial’s Test distinguish?
A
Pentoses from hexoses monosaccharides
It is a qualitative test for carbohydrate identification.
20
Q
What is the purpose of the Iodine Test?
A
To detect polysaccharides such as starch
Iodine forms a dark blue to black color with polysaccharides due to its adsorption.
21
Q
What is the Grease Spot Test used for?
A
It is used to detect lipids
The Grease Spot Test involves placing a sample on filter paper and observing for a translucent stain.
22
Q
What does the Solubility Test reveal about lipids?
A
Lipids are insoluble in polar solvents and soluble in non-polar solvents
Examples of non-polar solvents include chloroform, ether, benzene, and alcohol.
23
Q
What is the purpose of the Emulsification Test?
A
It is used to detect lipids
The test shows that oily materials can be temporarily emulsified in water.
24
Q
What does the Sudan IV Stain Test indicate?
A
It is used to detect lipids
Sudan IV stains lipids with a red-orange color and does not stain polar compounds.
25
What does the Copper Acetate Test distinguish?
It distinguishes between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
## Footnote
Saturated fatty acids yield a blue color in the lower layer, while unsaturated fatty acids yield a green color in the upper layer.
26
What is the Glycerol Test used for?
It is used for the detection of glycerol
## Footnote
This test specifically identifies the presence of glycerol in samples.
27
What is the Cholesterol Test based on?
It is used for the detection of cholesterol using two reactions
## Footnote
One of the reactions involved is the Silkerkin Reaction.
28
Define biochemistry.
It is a big science that deals with various biomolecules
## Footnote
Key areas include carbohydrates, lipids, hormones, nucleic acids, blood gases, proteins, enzymes, vitamins, electrolytes, and water.
29
List the main areas of study within biochemistry.
* Carbohydrates
* Lipids
* Hormones
* Nucleic acids
* Blood gases
* Proteins
* Enzymes
* Vitamins
* Electrolytes
* Water (H2O)
## Footnote
These areas encompass the essential biomolecules and substances in biological systems.
30
What is spectroscopy?
An instrument which generates and measures light
## Footnote
Spectroscopy is used to analyze chemical substances.
31
What is light?
A form of electromagnetic radiation which travels in waves
## Footnote
Light is essential for spectroscopy.
32
Define a wave in the context of light.
An undulatory movement
## Footnote
Waves are fundamental to understanding light and spectroscopy.
33
What is wavelength (w.l)?
The distance between two peaks of light waves, measured in nanometers (nm)
## Footnote
Wavelength is a critical parameter in spectroscopy.
34
What happens to a solution that appears colored in relation to light absorption?
It absorbs light at a particular wavelength and reflects it
## Footnote
For example, absorbing yellow light at 590 nm makes a substance appear blue.
35
How is the amount of light absorbed related to concentration?
Directly related; increasing concentration increases color intensity
## Footnote
This relationship is key in quantitative analysis using spectroscopy.
36
List the components of spectroscopy.
* Light Source (Lamp)
* Monochromator (Wavelength Selector)
* Cuvette (Sample Holder)
* Photodetectors
* Read-Out Devices (Meter)
## Footnote
Each component plays a specific role in the spectroscopy process.
37
What types of light sources are used in spectroscopy?
* Tungsten lamp
* Deuterium or hydrogen lamp
## Footnote
Light sources provide the necessary illumination for the spectroscopic analysis.
38
What is the function of the monochromator in spectroscopy?
To select specific wavelengths of light
## Footnote
Monochromators can include filters and prisms.
39
What are the types of cuvettes used in spectroscopy?
* Rectangular: Glass cuvette, Quartz cuvette
* Round: Glass cuvette
## Footnote
Cuvettes must be clean and free from bubbles for accurate measurements.
40
What is the purpose of photodetectors in spectroscopy?
To convert the light signal to electrical current
## Footnote
This conversion is essential for measuring the intensity of light absorbed.
41
What is the function of read-out devices in spectroscopy?
To measure the electrical current
## Footnote
Read-out devices can include various formats, such as graphs.
42
Fill in the blank: The unit of wavelength is _______.
nanometer (nm)
## Footnote
Wavelength is a crucial property in the study of light.
43
True or False: A cuvette must be free from fingerprints or spills.
True
## Footnote
Clean cuvettes are necessary for accurate spectroscopic measurements.
44
What is a Blank Solution (BL)?
A reagent or solution which may contain all components except a vital substance.
## Footnote
It is used to zero adjustment in instruments.
45
What is the purpose of using a Blank Solution?
To zero adjustment in order to avoid instrument failure of light by solution.
## Footnote
This ensures accurate measurements.
46
Name the types of Blank Solutions.
* Reagent blank
* Air blank (Cuvette blank)
* Distilled water blank
* Sample blank (Serum blank)
## Footnote
Each type serves a specific purpose in laboratory measurements.
47
What is a Standard Solution (STD)?
A pure chemical substance with known concentration, from the same substance being assayed.
## Footnote
It is essential for calibration in analytical procedures.
48
What are the purposes of a Standard Solution?
* Establish the quality of reagents
* Establish the quality of instruments
* Calculation of result
## Footnote
Standard Solutions are critical for ensuring accuracy in measurements.
49
What is a Test Solution (Sample Test Solution) (T)?
A solution of an unknown concentration of a particular constituent.
## Footnote
It is used to measure the concentration of a specific component in a sample.
50
What is the purpose of a Test Solution?
To measure the concentration of a particular constituent in serum, plasma, or urine.
## Footnote
An example includes measuring serum alkaline phosphatase.
51
What does Beer's Law of Light Absorption state?
Conc. of Test = (Abs(T) / Abs(STD)) * Conc. of (STD).
## Footnote
This law relates absorbance to concentration, which is fundamental in spectrophotometry.
52
What is the Glucose Test?
Measurement of blood glucose (serum glucose concentration)
## Footnote
Glucose is a simple sugar and is crucial for energy in the body.
53
Why is glucose considered the most important sugar of carbohydrates?
It is a major source of energy in the body and is essential for brain and nervous system cells
## Footnote
Glucose is a hexose and monosaccharide sugar.
54
What can glucose be converted into in the body?
* Galactose
* Fructose
* Ribose
* Glycogen
* Amino sugars
* Non-essential amino acids
* Fatty acids
* Triglycerides
* Glucuronic acid
## Footnote
Glucose conversion occurs in the liver and other tissues.
55
What role does insulin play in glucose metabolism?
Insulin transports glucose into body cells for energy and directs the liver to store excess glucose as glycogen
## Footnote
Insulin is produced by pancreatic beta-cells.
56
What happens to blood glucose levels after a meal?
Blood glucose levels rise slightly, and insulin is released to decrease them
## Footnote
The amount of insulin released depends on meal size and content.
57
What hormone is produced when blood glucose levels drop too low?
Glucagon
## Footnote
Glucagon is produced by pancreatic alpha-cells.
58
What is the function of glucagon in glucose regulation?
Stimulates liver cells to release stored glucose and increase blood glucose levels
## Footnote
This occurs between meals or after strong exercises.
59
True or False: Severe sudden high or low blood glucose levels can be life-threatening.
True
## Footnote
Severe levels can lead to organ failure, brain damage, coma, and death.
60
What are the long-term effects of high blood glucose levels?
Progressive damage to kidneys, eyes, blood vessels, and nerves
## Footnote
Long-term high levels can lead to chronic health issues.
61
What occurs when blood glucose levels exceed 180 mg/dL?
Sugar appears in urine
## Footnote
This is a sign of high blood glucose levels.
62
What is the abbreviation for Post-prandial Blood Sugar?
PPBS
63
What is the wavelength range for violet light absorption?
400-425 nm
64
What color of light is reflected in the wavelength range of 425-500 nm?
Blue
65
What is the color of light absorbed in the wavelength range of 500-570 nm?
Green
66
What type of electromagnetic radiation corresponds to wavelengths below 400 nm?
Ultraviolet
67
What is the wavelength range for yellow light absorption?
570-600 nm
68
What color is reflected in the wavelength range of 600-630 nm?
Orange
69
Fill in the blank: The color of light absorbed in the wavelength range of 630-700 nm is _______.
Red
70
What type of electromagnetic radiation includes wavelengths longer than visible light?
Infrared
71
True or False: The color green is reflected in the wavelength range of 570-600 nm.
False
72
What is the color corresponding to the wavelength range of 600-700 nm?
Red
73
What two colors are absorbed in the wavelength range of 425-500 nm?
Blue, Green
74
What color is reflected in the wavelength range of 570-600 nm?
Yellow
75
What is the wavelength range for radio waves?
Greater than 700 nm
76
What is the purpose of the Grease Spot Test?
Detection of lipids
## Footnote
A simple test where a grease spot is left on paper to indicate the presence of lipids.
77
In which type of solvents are lipids soluble?
Non-polar solvents
## Footnote
Examples include chloroform, ether, benzene, and alcohol.
78
What is the Emulsification Test used for?
To test the emulsification properties of lipids
## Footnote
Lipids are temporarily emulsified in water and permanently when organic solvents are added.
79
What color does Sudan IV stain lipids?
Red-orange
## Footnote
Sudan IV is a non-polar stain that specifically targets lipids.
80
What does the Copper Acetate Test distinguish between?
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
## Footnote
Saturated fatty acids produce a blue color in the lower layer, while unsaturated fatty acids yield a green color in the upper layer.
81
What is the Glycerol Test used for?
Detection of glycerol
## Footnote
A specific test to identify the presence of glycerol in a sample.
82
What two reactions are involved in the Cholesterol Test?
Salkowski Reaction and Liebermann Reaction
## Footnote
These reactions are used to detect cholesterol in samples.
83
Fill in the blank: Lipids are insoluble in _______ solvents.
Polar
## Footnote
This characteristic helps in the identification of lipids.
84
True or False: Lipids can be permanently emulsified by adding organic solvents to water.
True
## Footnote
This process lowers the surface tension and allows for permanent emulsification.
85
What are lipids?
Organic heterogeneous compounds related to fatty acids
## Footnote
Lipids are relatively insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents like ether, chloroform, and benzene
86
What types of lipids are there?
Simple Lipids (e.g., Triglycerides)
## Footnote
This classification helps in understanding the different forms and functions of lipids
87
What are serum lipid measurements?
Serum Lipoproteins (e.g., LDL, HDL, VLDL), Serum Total Cholesterol, Serum Total Triglycerides
## Footnote
These measurements are critical for assessing lipid levels in the body
88
What is the most important sterol in the human body?
Cholesterol
## Footnote
Cholesterol is present only in animals and plays a crucial role in various bodily functions
89
Where is cholesterol primarily found in the body?
In every body cell, especially in the adrenal cortex, gonads, liver, kidneys, brain, and nerve tissues
## Footnote
Cholesterol is essential for maintaining cell membrane structure
90
What are the two forms of cholesterol?
Cholesterol and Cholesteryl ester
## Footnote
Cholesteryl ester is formed when cholesterol is esterified with a fatty acid at C3
91
What percentage of cholesterol is derived from diet?
30%
## Footnote
The remaining 70% is synthesized by the body, primarily in the liver
92
What organs synthesize cholesterol?
Liver, intestine, adrenal gland, reproductive organs
## Footnote
The liver is the major site of cholesterol synthesis
93
What are the functions of cholesterol?
* Essential structural component of cell membranes and lipoproteins
* Synthesis of steroid hormones
* Synthesis of vitamin D
* Synthesis of bile acids and bile salts
## Footnote
Cholesterol plays a vital role in digestion, lipid absorption, and hormone production
94
True or False: Cholesterol is involved in the digestion of lipids.
True
## Footnote
Bile acids and bile salts synthesized from cholesterol are important for emulsifying fats
95
Fill in the blank: Cholesterol is synthesized primarily in the _______.
liver
## Footnote
The liver is the major site for cholesterol synthesis in the body
96
What is the primary method of excretion for cholesterol?
Half of cholesterol is excreted after its conversion into bile salts
## Footnote
This process helps prevent the formation of gallstones by keeping cholesterol soluble.
97
What effect do bile salts have on liver cells?
Bile salts stimulate liver cells to secrete more bile
## Footnote
This is referred to as the choleretic effect.
98
What is hypercholesterolemia?
A condition characterized by elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood
## Footnote
It can be caused by genetic factors or dietary influences.
99
What causes homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia?
Lack of LDL receptors
## Footnote
This genetic condition leads to extremely high cholesterol levels.
100
What is the dietary influence on cholesterol levels?
A diet rich in carbohydrates, cholesterol, and saturated fatty acids increases cholesterol levels
## Footnote
This dietary pattern is associated with hypercholesterolemia.
101
How does hypothyroidism affect cholesterol levels?
Decreased thyroid hormone leads to decreased stimulation of cholesterol conversion to bile
## Footnote
This results in elevated cholesterol levels.
102
What is the relationship between diabetes mellitus, obesity, and cholesterol?
Increased lipolysis of triglycerides leads to acetyl-CoA formation
## Footnote
This process contributes to elevated cholesterol levels.
103
What condition is associated with decreased excretion of cholesterol?
Cholestasis (obstructive jaundice)
## Footnote
This condition results in the accumulation of cholesterol in the body.
104
What is the purpose of the Biuret Test?
It is used for detection of proteins
## Footnote
This test detects compounds containing two or more peptide bonds.
105
What is isoelectric precipitation?
A method used to precipitate Casein in milk
## Footnote
Casein is a phosphoprotein that forms micelles responsible for milk's opaque appearance.
106
What is the isoelectric point (IEP) of Casein?
4.6
## Footnote
At this pH, Casein has a net zero charge and precipitates.
107
What happens to Casein at its isoelectric point?
Casein is precipitated
## Footnote
At pH 4.6, it becomes insoluble due to a net zero charge.
108
What causes protein precipitation when adding acid to milk?
Neutralization of the negative charge on Casein
## Footnote
This leads to protein precipitation due to the formation of insoluble aggregates.
109
What is the effect of heat on proteins during precipitation?
Heat causes denaturation of proteins
## Footnote
This increases kinetic energy and breaks weak bonds, leading to insolubility.
110
What is the Silver Nitrate Test used for?
To differentiate between Albumin, Casein, and peptones
## Footnote
It produces different color precipitates for each protein.
111
What color precipitate indicates the presence of Albumin in the Silver Nitrate Test?
White precipitate
## Footnote
This helps identify Albumin among other proteins.
112
What color precipitate indicates Casein in the Silver Nitrate Test?
Brown precipitate
## Footnote
This is a distinguishing feature of Casein.
113
What is the result for peptones in the Silver Nitrate Test?
No color change
## Footnote
This indicates the absence of Albumin and Casein.
114
What is the Sulfure Test used for?
To detect sulfur amino acids such as cystine
## Footnote
The Sulfure Test can be performed using Lead Acetate or Sodium Nitroprusside.
115
What does the Xanthoproteic Test detect?
Aromatic amino acids such as tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan
116
What is Millon's Test used for?
Detection of tyrosine, either free or bound in proteins
117
Which amino acids are detected using the reaction with Ninhydrin?
All amino acids except proline and hydroxyproline
118
Fill in the blank: The Xanthoproteic Test detects _______.
aromatic amino acids
119
True or False: Millon's Test can detect amino acids other than tyrosine.
False
120
What are the two methods used in the Sulfure Test?
Lead Acetate and Sodium Nitroprusside
121
Which amino acids cannot be detected by the Ninhydrin reaction?
Proline and hydroxyproline
122
What are the two main components of Serum Total Protein?
Albumin and Globulin
## Footnote
Serum Total Protein is crucial for maintaining normal water distribution and acid-base balance.
123
What is the normal value range for Serum Total Protein?
6.6-8.2 g/dL
## Footnote
Plasma is approximately 0.2 g/dL higher than serum due to fibrinogen.
124
What percentage of Serum Total Proteins does Serum Albumin represent?
50-65%
## Footnote
The normal range for Serum Albumin is 3.5-5.2 g/dL.
125
What is the normal range for Serum Globulin?
2.3-2.5 g/dL
## Footnote
Serum Globulin constitutes about 40% of Serum Total Proteins.
126
What is the Albumin/Globulin ratio (A/G ratio) range?
1.5-2.5 (2:1)
## Footnote
This ratio is important for assessing protein levels in the serum.
127
What is a key indication for performing a Serum Total Protein test?
When protein fractionation is performed
## Footnote
It helps in calculating various protein levels and identifying conditions like hemoconcentration.
128
What condition is indicated by an increase in Serum Total Protein?
Dehydration
## Footnote
Other conditions may include paraproteinemia and chronic diseases.
129
What are some causes of decreasing Serum Total Protein?
* Over Hydration
* Increased Loss (e.g., Nephritic Syndrome, Severe Burns)
## Footnote
These conditions can lead to a significant drop in protein levels.
130
True or False: Albumin plays a critical role in maintaining oncotic pressure.
True
## Footnote
It also serves as a transport protein for various substances.
131
What role do Globulins play in the immune system?
Critical for immune function
## Footnote
Immunoglobulins (antibodies) help identify and neutralize foreign antigens.
132
Fill in the blank: The Serum Total Protein test is useful when _______ is suspected.
hemoconcentration
## Footnote
Conditions such as shock, dehydration, and hemorrhage may lead to hemoconcentration.
133
What chronic diseases can lead to an increase in Serum Total Protein?
* Liver Cirrhosis
* Chronic Infection
* Tuberculosis
## Footnote
These conditions often result in increased globulin production.
