1. Scientific Processes (Peer Review + Economy)

Question 1

What is science about

Answer 1

• Establishing truths
• Answering real-life questions & testing hypotheses
• Testing theories

Question 2

What should scientific research be

Answer 2

1. Objective - independent of beliefs or opinions
2. Methods used should be empirical - based on data, not just theory. The best way to make sure of this is to carry out an experiment that collects quantitative data & has strictly controlled variables.
3. This means you should be able to replicate the research & also to establish cause & effect.

Question 3

What is science about: Answering real-life questions & testing hypotheses

Answer 3

Science tries to explain how & why things happen - it tests hypotheses & constructs theories by asking questions. This is the scientific process:

1. Ask a question - make an observation & ask why or how it happens
2. Suggest an answer, or part of an answer, by forming a theory (a possible explanation of the observation)
3. Make a hypothesis - a specific testable statement, based on the theory, abt what will happen
4. Carry out a test - to provide evidence that will support the hypothesis (or help to disprove it)

Question 4

A theory is only scientific if…

Answer 4

it can be tested.

Question 5

What is science about: Testing theories

Answer 5

1. Starts off w one experiment backing up a prediction & theory.
2. Results are published - scientists need to let others know of their work, so try get their research published in scientific journals. All work must undergo peer review before published.
3. Other scientists read the published theories & try to repeat them - involves repeating exact experiments, & using the theory to make new predictions that are tested by new experiments.
4. If all the experiments provide evidence to back it up, the theory is thought of as a scientific ‘fact’.
5. If new evidence comes to light that conflicts w the current evidence, the theory is questioned all over again. More rounds of testing carried out to see which evidence, & so which theory, prevails.

Question 6

What is peer review

Answer 6

• Process used to ensure the integrity of published scientific work.
• Before publication, scientific work is sent to experts in that field who assess the quality of the work.
• Peers should be objective & unknown to the researcher.

Question 7

Why are peer reviews needed

Answer 7

1. Helps keep scientists honest - eg. no exaggerated/false conclusions if your data doesn’t support it, as it wont pass peer review.
2. Helps to validate conclusions - means published theories, data, conclusions are more trustworthy. (BUT cant guarantee the conclusions are 100% right, more rounds of predicting & testing needed before they’re taken as a ‘fact’)
3. Sometimes mistakes are made & incorrectly published - way for scientists to self-regulate their work, & to ensure reliable scientific work is published. Improvements can be suggested.

Question 8

Why must peer review be anonymous

Answer 8

• To maintain an honest appraisal.
• A minority of reviewers may use their anonymity to criticise rival researchers who have crossed them in the past.
• Researchers are in direct competition for grants/funding.
• Some journals make the names of reviewers PUBLIC.

Question 9

Issue with reviewers in peer review: Publication bias

Answer 9

• There is a tendency for editors to publish significant ‘headline grabbing’ findings to increase credibility & circulation of their publication.

Question 10

Issue with reviewers in peer review: Burying ground-breaking research

Answer 10

• Reviewers are especially critical of research that contradicts their own & favourable to those that match theirs.
• Reviewers tend to be established scientists & more likely to publish research that ‘fits’ w current opinions than new & innovative research that challenges.
• This could in turn, slow down the rate of change.

Question 11

What did Popper (1969) argue

Answer 11

• He argued that theories are abstract, so its impossible to prove them right through empirical research.
• Instead, he claimed a theory is scientific if it’s falsifiable - if it can be proved wrong. So every test of a theory should be an attempt to falsify it.

eg. Freud’s psychodynamic explanation of gender development is non-falsifiable - cant prove it wrong bc its based on unconscious mind

Question 12

Key thing about theories

Answer 12

Theories get tested over & over again.
Our currently accepted theories have survived this ‘trial by evidence’ - each time they’ve been tested the results have backed them up.
BUT
they never become totally indisputable fact. Scientific breakthroughs or advances could provide new ways to test a theory, which could lead to changes to it. Then the testing starts all over again.

Question 13

What is a paradigm

Answer 13

Sciences uses paradigms - a set of principles, methods & techniques which define a scientific discipline.

Question 14

More on paradigms

Answer 14

• Kuhn (1970) believed that for smth to be a science, it needs to have a paradigm. This has resulted in 2 different opinions as to whether psychology is truly a science.
• Some believe that psychology has a paradigm. It was initially behaviourism, but then underwent a change to cognitive psychology. This change in principles & practices is known as a paradigm shift.
• Others argue psychology might be made up of mini-paradigms, & so psychology is in a state of pre-science.

Question 15

1 way in which psychological research can impact the economy

Answer 15

• Eg. ppl with untreated mental health disorders may need more time off work.
• Ppl suffering from conditions like depression or OCD which arent being treated may need to take more days off work than those receiving treatment - Absences at work cost the economy an estimated £15bil/year.
• Treatments (sa CBT/SSRIs) for mild mental health disorders come abt as a result of psychological research (eg. cognitive-behaviour therapy, etc) & can help ppl continue a normal lifestyle, & return to work - Less time off work is better for the economy.

Question 16

Another way in which psychological research can impact the economy

Answer 16

• Czeisler et al (1982) studied workers at a factory whose shift patterns appeared to cause sleep/health problems.
• Recommended rotating shifts every 21 days & changing shifts forward in time.
• Previously employees had worked during the night for a week, late afternoons for 2nd week & mornings for the 3rd week & returning to the night work.
• Cognitive psychology has helped ppl understand sleep patterns/cycles which helps w these working hours.
• The changes indicated increased productivity & job satisfaction.