Attachment, Emotions, Aggression, and Moral Development

Question 1

____ refers to the strong emotional bond that develops between an infant and his or her primary caregiver(s).

Answer 1

Attachment

Question 2

____ of ____: There are several explanations for the origins of attachment. ____ ____ describes the attachment of an infant to his or her mother as the consequence of ____ ____, while ____ ____ regards it more generally as the result of ____ (i.e., infants develop attachments to people who provide them with food, affection, and other pleasurable experiences). Of these two theories, ____ ____ has received the most support.

Answer 2

Theories of Attachment; Psychoanalytic Theory; Oral Gratification; Learning Theory; Reinforcement; Learning Theory

Question 3

Infant rhesus monkeys in Harlow’s research were raised with two surrogate mothers, a wire-mesh mother and a ____ ____. Regardless of which mother provided food, the infants became attached to the terrycloth mother: They spent a great deal of time clinging to the cloth mother and ran to it when they were afraid. Based on these results, Harlow concluded that a baby’s attachment to his or her mother is due, in part, to ____ ____, or the ____ ____ ____ that is provided by a soft, cuddly parent.

Answer 3

Terrycloth Mother; Contact Comfort; Pleasant Tactile Sensation

Question 4

____ (1980) ____ of ____ was influenced by ethology and evolutionary theory. It Proposes that exposure of an infant to his or her mother during a ____ ____ (the infant’s first year of life) results in a ____ between them that helps ensure the ____ ____. Bowlby proposed that humans are born with a biological predisposition that increases the likelihood that an ____ ____ ____: Infants are ____ to ____, ____, and ____ in order to get a caregiver’s attention, protection, and love, while adults are programmed to ____ to an ____ ____.

Answer 4

Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment; Exposure; Critical Period; Bond; Infant’s Survival; Attachment Will Form; Programmed to Cry, Smile, and Vocalize; Respond to an Infant’s Behaviors

Question 5

Bowlby also distinguished between four stages of attachment development that occur during the first two years of life: ________________________________________________.

Answer 5

Preattachment, Attachment-in-the-Making, Clearcut Attachment, and the Formation of Reciprocal Relationships.

Question 6

According to Bowlby, as a result of experiences during these stages, a child develops an ____ ____ ____, which is a mental representation of self and others that influences the child’s future relationships.

Answer 6

Internal Working Model

Question 7

Signs of Attachment: During the first few months of life, infants emit attachment behaviors ____ but, by six to seven months of age, these behaviors become increasingly directed toward the ____ ____. ____ of ____ include social referencing and separation and stranger anxiety.

Answer 7

Indiscriminately; Primary Caregiver(s); Signs of Attachment

Question 8

By about six months of age, infants begin to demonstrate ____ ____, which involves looking to a caregiver to determine how to respond to new or ambiguous situations. For example, studies have found that a one-year-old ‘s to cross a “visual cliff” depends on their mother’s facial expression. When the mother (who is standing on the opposite side of the cliff) looks happy, the child is likely to cross; but when the mother looks angry or afraid, the child is much less likely to do so.

Answer 8

Social Referencing

Question 9

____ ____ refers to severe distress that occurs when a child is separated from their primary caregiver. It begins at about six to eight months of age. peaks in intensity at 14 to 18 months, and then gradually declines.

Answer 9

Separation Anxiety

Question 10

____ ____: By about eight to ten months, infants become very anxious and fearful in the presence of a ____, especially when a caregiver is not nearby or when the caregiver does not respond positively to the ____. This stranger anxiety continues to about age two and then diminishes.

Answer 10

Stranger Anxiety; Stranger; Stranger

Question 11

To assess the nature and consequences of attachment. Ainsworth devised the ____ ____ procedure, which consists of several phases during which the mother leaves her infant alone in a room with a stranger and then returns. Research using this technique has identified four distinct ____ of ____.

Answer 11

Strange Situation; Patterns of Attachment

Question 12

____ ____: In the strange situation, a ____ ____ baby explores the room and plays with toys in the room while his or her mother is present. The baby becomes ____ ____ when the mother leaves and actively ____ ____ with her when she returns. Mothers of securely attached children are ____ ____ and responsive to their babies’ cues.

Answer 12

Secure Attachment; Securely Attached; Mildly Upset; Seeks Contact; Emotionally Sensitive

Question 13

____ (____)/____ ____: A baby with this kind of attachment alternates between ____ and ____ their mother, becomes very disturbed when left alone with a stranger, and is ____ when the mother returns and may become ____ and ____ her attempts at physical contact. Mothers of these children often ____ and ____ in their caregiving (i.e., sometimes indifferent. at other times enthusiastic). (This pattern is also referred to as insecure/resistant attachment.

Answer 13

Insecure (Anxious)/Ambivalent Attachment; Clinging and Resisting; Disturbed; Ambivalent; Angry and Resist; Moody and Inconsistent

Question 14

____ (____)/____ ____: An ____ baby interacts very little with their mother. shows ____ ____ when she leaves the room, and ____ or ____ them when she returns. These babies react to their mothers and strangers in a ____ ____. Mothers of avoidant children are very ____ and ____ or, at the other extreme, provide their children with too much ____.

Answer 14

Insecure (Anxious)/Avoidant Attachment; Avoidant; Little Distress; Avoids or Ignores; Similar Manner; Impatient and Unresponsive; Stimulation

Question 15

____ /____ ____: These children exhibit ____ of their caregivers, a ____ or ____ ____ ____, and a variety of other ____ ____ behaviors (e.g., greeting mother when she returns but then turning away from her). About 80% of infants who have been ____ by their caregivers exhibit this pattern.

Answer 15

Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment; Fear; Dazed or Confused Facial Expression; Disorganized Attachment; Mistreated

Question 16

Early attachment has been found to predict several aspects of a child’s ____ ____. Compared to their insecurely attached peers, children who were ____ ____ as infants are more curious and less dependent on adults at 4 and 5 years of age, have more positive social interactions with peers, engage in more prosocial behaviors, exhibit greater empathy, and perform better academically in elementary school; and, as adults, they tend to have ____ ____ -____ and a strong sense of ____ ____. In contrast, children who exhibit a ____ /____ ____ ____ as infants are at an increased risk for hostile and aggressive behavior, low self-esteem, and low academic achievement in childhood.

Answer 16

Future Adjustment; Securely Attached; High Self-Esteem; Personal Identity; Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment Pattern

Question 17

The effects of ____ ____ are not always predictable. While some insecurely attached children have ____ ____ ____, others do not; and there is evidence that the impact of insecure attachment is related to ____ of ____ — i.e., insecurely attached infants are less likely to develop adjustment problems when their parents’ caregiving skills ____ and/or when they develop strong bonds to individuals ____ the ____ ____.

Answer 17

Insecure Attachment; Later Adjustment Problems; Continuity of Care; Improve; Outside the Immediate Family

Question 18

____ to ____: The research has confirmed that infants ____ ____ to their fathers even when their mothers are the ____ ____ and that a ____ ____ -____ attachment is linked to positive social and cognitive outcomes for the child.

Answer 18

Attachment to Fathers; Form Attachments; Primary Caregivers; Secure Father-Infant Attachment

Question 19

The basis for the attachment to mothers and fathers may differ: ____ ____ to her infant has been identified as the primary contributor to a secure mother-infant attachment, while ____ ____ in caregiving activities (especially vigorous physical play) has been identified as a key contributor to a secure father-infant attachment.

Answer 19

Maternal Sensitivity; Paternal Involvement

Question 20

____ ____: Research studies examining the long-term effects of ____ ____ -____ ____ have looked at children who, as the result of being ____ during early childhood, are separated from their ____ ____ ____. These studies have found that children separated ____ to ____ ____ of ____ show little or no negative consequences, but that children who are ____ ____ or ____ at the time of separation exhibit moderate to extreme reactions, including feeding and sleeping problems, social withdrawal, increased stranger anxiety, and either physical rejection of the new mother or excessive clinging to her.

Answer 20

Prolonged Separation; Early Parent-Child Separation; Adopted; Initial Primary Caregivers; Prior to Three Monthe of Age; Nine Months or Older

Question 21

Results of early parent-child separation studies are consistent with the finding that ____ ____ has the most negative impact when separation of the mother and infant occurs during the ____ ____ of the ____ ____ of ____. In this situation, the infant may develop ____ ____, a syndrome involving developmental delays, unresponsiveness, and withdraw.

Answer 21

Early Institutionalization; Second Half of the First Year of Life; Anaclitic Depression

Question 22

Longitudinal research by Tizard and colleagues confirmed that “____ ____ “ have higher-than-normal rates of emotional and behavioral problems but also that children initially raised in ____ are subsequently able to develop a ____ ____ with their adoptive parents as long as they are adopted by ____ ____ of ____.

Answer 22

Late Adoptees; Institutions; Close Bond; Six Years of Age

Question 23

____ ____ of ____: A meta-analysis of the research using the ____ ____ ____ has confirmed a relationship between parents’ own early attachment experiences and the attachment patterns of their children.

Answer 23

Intergenerational Effects of Attachment; Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)

Question 24

Adults are classified as ____ on the AAI when they give coherent descriptions of their childhood relationships with their parents. These adults tend to have children who exhibit a ____ ____ in the strange situation.

Answer 24

Autonomous; Secure Attachment

Question 25

Adults are classified as ____ on the AAI when they provide a positive description of their childhood relations with their parents, but the descriptions are either not ____ or are ____ by specific memories. Children of these adults often exhibit an ____ ____ ____.

Answer 25

Dismissing; Supported; Contradicted; Avoidant Attachment Pattern

Question 26

Adults are categorized as ____ on the AAI when they become very ____ or ____ when describing their childhood relationships with parents or seem ____ preoccupied with a parent. Their children most often exhibit a ____ /____ ____ ____.

Answer 26

Preoccupied; Angry; Confused; Passively; Resistant/Ambivalent Attachment Pattern

Question 27

Link ____/____ ____ to ambivalent, resistant behavior by the child and moody, inconsistent behavior by the mother.

Answer 27

Insecure/Ambivalent Attachment

Question 28

____ ____ emerge in a predictable sequence during infancy. ____ (____) ____ emerge first: Soon after birth, infants express interest, sadness, disgust, and distress through their facial expressions; ____ by 6 to 8 months, they also express anger, joy, surprise, and fear. It is not until the ____ ____ of life that children begin to display ____ -____ ____, which reflect children’s ability to use ____ ____ and ____ to evaluate their own behaviors: At 18 to 24 months, they begin to show outward signs of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment; and at 30 to 36 months, shame, guilt, and pride are also apparent.

Answer 28

Eary Emotions; Primary (Basic) Emotions; Second Year of Life; Self-Conscious Emotions; Social Standards and Rules

Question 29

The ability of infants to detect emotions in others is manifested as ____ ____, which appears during the ____ ____ ____ of ____ and occurs when an infant spontaneously cries in response to the cries of another infant. Another early sign is the infant’s reaction to the ____ ____ of ____. For example, by about three months of age, infants ____ the sad, happy, and angry expressions of their caregivers.

Answer 29

Emotional Contagion; First Few Weeks of Life; Facial Expressions of Caregivers; Imitate

Question 30

____ is the “vicarious experiencing of another person’s feelings” and is considered to be an important contributor to ____ ____. It consists of ____ and ____ components, with the cognitive component involving ____ -____ (a person’s ability to adopt to another person’s point of view) and the affective component consisting of a person’s ____ ____ to another person’s ____ -____.

Answer 30

Empathy; Moral Development; Cognitive and Affective; Perspective-Taking; Emotional Reaction; Well-Being

Question 31

Empathy is the result of ____ and ____ ____ as well as ____ ____, especially experiences with ____. Regarding the latter, parents who are sensitive to their children’s feelings, are ____ and ____, and reason with children about the ____ of their ____ have children with the highest levels of ____.

Answer 31

Language and Cognitive Development; Early Experiences; Caregivers; Sensitive; Nonpunitive and Nonauthoritarian; Consequences of their Behavior; Empathy

Question 32

There is some evidence of a gender difference in empathy, with ______ of all ages exhibiting higher levels of empathy. However, several studies that the size of the gender difference depends on the _____ __ _________________ __ ___: A large gender difference is more likely when a ____-______ _________________ is used than when __________ or ____________ ________________ are used.

Answer 32

Girls; type of instrument used; self-report measure; physiological; unobtrusive measures

Question 33

The research suggests the empathy of children and adolescents can be increased with _______ ________ that focuses on identifying ____ ____ ______ and the __________ __ _____, _______ ___________between oneself and others, and responding positively to others. However, it appears that training is most effective for individuals with _______ __________ _______on measures of empathy — i.e., that empathy scores increase somewhat more for ____ than for _____ and for _______ __________ than for ______________ _______________.

Answer 33

empathy training; one’s own feelings; feelings of others; recognizing similarities; lower initial scores; boys; girls; younger children; older children

Question 34

Children begin expressing ____________ early in life; and, by the preschool years, two types of aggressive behavior can be distinguished: _______________ ___________ is also known as __________ _______________ and is performed to obtain a desired reward or advantage, while___________ _________ is also known as __________ ____________ and is “an angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person.”

Answer 34

Aggressiveness; Instrumental aggression; proactive aggression; hostile aggression; reactive aggression

Question 35

____ of ____: Patterson and his colleagues (1992) focus on family contributions to aggression and conclude that the families of highly aggressive boys are distinguishable from other families in terms of two main characteristics: _____ _____ (reliance on coercive, aggressive behaviors by both children and their parents to gain compliance) and ____________________.

Answer 35

Causes of Aggression; Coercive Interactions; Poor Parental Monitoring of Children’s Activities

Question 36

Paterson and colleagues’ ____ ____ ____ ____ proposes (a) that children initially _____ _____ _____ from their _____ who rarely reinforce prosocial behaviors. use harsh discipline and reward their children’s aggressiveness with approval and attention and (b) that, over time, _________________.

Answer 36

Coercive Family Interactions Model; Learn Aggressive Behaviors; Parents; Aggressive Parent-Child Interactions Escalate

Question 37

These investigators also contend that the likelihood that parents will use coercive forms of discipline increases when the family experiences_____ _____ of _____, the parents have certain _____ _____, and the child has a _____ _____.

Answer 37

High Levels of Stress; Personality Characteristics; Difficult Temperament

Question 38

Patterson et al. developed the ___________________________________ to help stop this _____ _____ by teaching parents _____ _____ _____ (limit setting/discipline, monitoring/supervision, problem solving, positive involvement, and skill parents with therapy to help them ____ more effectively with _____.

Answer 38

Oregon Model of Parent Management Training (PMTO); Effective Parenting Skills; Cope; Stress

Question 39

Researchers have also identified several ____-____ _____ that contribute to aggression.

Answer 39

Social-Cognitive Factors

Question 40

Perry and colleagues found that aggressive children different from their less aggressive peers in terms of a) ____-____ ____ (they are more likely to say that it is easy to perform aggressive acts but difficult to inhibit aggressive impulses), b) beliefs about the ____ of ____ ____ (they expect that aggression will be followed by positive consequences including reduced aversive treatment by others), and c) ____ or ____ (they show little remorse after committing an aggressive act).

Answer 40

Self-Efficacy Beliefs; Outcomes of Their Behaviors; Regret or Remorse

Question 41

Other studies have linked aggression to a ____ ____ ____, which is the tendency to misinterpret the positive or ambiguous acts of others as intentionally hostile. Interventions based on social-cognitive theory focus on helping the individual ____ ____ ____, accurately ____ ____ ____ and ____, and ____ ____ and take the ____ of ____.

Answer 41

Hostile Attribution Bias; Control Their Anger; Interpret Social Events and Intentions; Empathize With; Perspective of Others

Question 42

____ has been consistently linked to ____, with the that ____ are more aggressive than ____ in a variety of contexts: For example, boys engage in more “____ -and-____ “ play, exhibit greater ____ ____, and are ____ with peers.

Answer 42

Aggressiveness; Gender; Boys; Girls; Rough-and-Tumble; Physical Aggression; Dominant

Question 43

Gender differences in aggressiveness seem to be due to both ____ and ____ ____ and are greatest among ____ and then gradually ____ with ____ ____ up through the ____ ____.

Answer 43

Biological and Environmental Factors; Preschoolers; Decline with Increasing Age; College Years

Question 44

Note that some research sugests that the usual generalization about gender differences in aggression needs to be qualified: boys are more ____ (verbally and physically) ____ than girls, girls engage in more ____ ____, which means that they attempt to harm or exert control over others by withdrawing their friendship and acceptance.

Answer 44

Overtly Aggressive; Relational Aggression

Question 45

____ ____ is defined as the ability to distinguish right from wrong and to then act in accordance with that distinction.

Answer 45

Moral Development

Question 46

____ ____ questioned children about dilemmas related to the violation of game rules and concluded that children progress through ____ ____ of ____ ____.

Answer 46

Piaget’s Theory; Three Stages of Moral Development

Question 47

Prior to age ____, children are in the ____ ____ and exhibit little (if any) concern for rules. This is followed by the stage of ____ ____ (or morality of constraint), which extends from about ages ____ ____ ____. During this stage, children believe that rules are set by ____ ____ and are ____. When judging whether an act is “right” or “wrong,” they consider whether a rule has been ____ and what the ____ of the ____ are i.e., the greater the ____ ____, the worse the ____.

Answer 47

Six; Premoral Stage; Heteronomous Morally; Seven Through Ten; Authority Figures; Unalterable; Violated; Consequences of the Act; Negative Consequences; Act

Question 48

Beginning at about age _, children enter the stage of ____ ____ (or morality of cooperation). Children In this stage view rules as ____ and as being ____ when the people who are governed by them ____ to ____ them. When judging an act, they focus more on the intent____ ion of the actor than on the ____ ____.

Answer 48

11; Autonomous Morality; Arbitrary; Alterable; Agree to Change; Intention; Act’s Consequences

Question 49

Piaget was one of the first investigators to explore children’s conceptions about ____. He concluded that very young children are “____ ____ “ and consider their false statements to be “____ “ and ____.

Answer 49

Lying; Spontaneous Liars; Natural and Harmless

Question 50

By age 7 or 8, children begin to intentionally communicate ____ ____; and, by age 10 or 1 1, they recognize that they can be ____ by ____, Subsequent research suggests, however, that children as young as age three or four ____ ____, most often to avoid ____ or obtain a reward.

Answer 50

False Statements; Deceived by Others; Lie Intentionally; Punishment

Question 51

____ ____: To investigate ____ ____, Kohlberg asked research participants to judge hypothetical moral dilemmas and give the reasons for their judgments. In his “____ ____,” for example, a participant is asked to explain why he or she believes it is better to steal a drug to save a person’s life or to obey the law by not stealing the drug.

Answer 51

Kohlberg’s Theory; Moral Reasoning; Heinz Dilemma

Question 52

Based on his findings, Kohlberg developed a universal, invariant sequence of ____ ____ of ____ ____ — preconventional. conventional, and postconventional — that each consist of ____ ____.

Answer 52

Three Levels of Moral Development; Two Stages

Question 53

Although there are individual differences, people typically shift from the preconventional to the conventional level at about age _ or _ and from the conventional to the postconventional level in late ____ or ____.

Answer 53

10 or 11; Late Adolescence or Adulthood

Question 54

Preconventional Morality: ________ and _________

Answer 54

Punishment and Obedience Orientation; Instrumental Hedonism

Question 55

_____ and _____ ____: The goodness or badness of an act depends on its consequences. For children at this stage, the right course of action is the one that allows them to avoid punishment.

Answer 55

Punishment and Obedience Orientation

Question 56

____ ____: Consequences still guide moral judgments, but judgments are based more on obtaining rewards and satisfying personal needs than on avoiding punishment.

Answer 56

Instrumental Hedonism

Question 57

Conventional Morality: ______ and ______

Answer 57

“Good Boy/Good Girl”; Law and Order Orientation

Question 58

“____ ____/____ ____”: The right action is the one that is liked or approved of by others.

Answer 58

Good Boy/Good Girl

Question 59

____ and ____ ____: In this stage, moral judgments are based on the rules and laws established by legitimate authorities.

Answer 59

Law and Order Orientation

Question 60

Postconventional Morality: ______ and ______

Answer 60

Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, and Democratically Accepted Laws; Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience

Question 61

_______: The morally right action is the one that is consistent with democratically determined laws (which can be changed if they interfere with basic rights).

Answer 61

Morality of Contract, Individual Rights, and Democratically Accepted Laws

Question 62

________: Right and wrong are determined on the basis of broad, self-chosen universally applicable ethical principles.

Answer 62

Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience

Question 63

Kohlberg (1971) proposed that progression through these stages depends not only on ____ of ____ but also on (a) the individual’s ____ (needs), (b) opportunities to take the ____ of ____ (social perspective-taking), and (c) exposure to ____ ____ that foster ____ and ____ (i.e., democratic Institutions).

Answer 63

Level of Reasoning; Motivation; Perspective of Others; Social Institutions; Equality and Reciprocity

Question 64

Kohlberg also proposed that the relationship between moral judgment and moral action is strongest for individuals at the ____ ____ of ____ ____.

Answer 64

Higher Stages of Moral Development

Question 65

To foster moral development, Kohlberg advocated the establishment of a ____ ____ in schools that provides students with opportunities to discuss ____ ____ and ____ ____ that arise through open discussions between students and staff.

Answer 65

Just Community; Moral Dilemmas and Resolve Conflicts

Question 66

Gilligan’s Theory: ____ ____ (1982) points out that, in Kohlberg’s original research, participants were males; and she argues that, as a result, his theory is not as applicable to ____ whose moral judgments are influenced less by concerns about ____ and ____ ____ and more by concerns related to caring, compassion, and responsibility to others.

Answer 66

Gilligan’s Theory; Females; Justice and Individual Rights

Question 67

Her research with females led to a ____ ____ that emphasizes 5 concerns.

Answer 67

Stage Model

Question 68

(focus is on what is best for oneself)

Answer 68

Level 1 — Orientation of Individual Survival

Question 69

(recognition that one is connected to others)

Answer 69

Transition 1 — From Selfishness to Responsibility

Question 70

(sacrifice of one’s own desires for those of others)

Answer 70

Level 2 — Goodness as Self-Sacrifice

Question 71

(focus is on coordinating one’s responsibilities to self and others)

Answer 71

Transition 2 — From Goodness to Truth

Question 72

(avoiding harm to oneself and to others is the foremost consideration)

Answer 72

Level 3 – Morality of Nonviolence

Question 73

Research on Gilligan’s theory has produced ____ ____. While some studies have found no or small gender differences in ____ ____, others have confirmed that the gender differences predicted by Gilligan begin to appear in early adolescence.

Answer 73

Mixed Results; Moral Judgements

Question 74

Harlow’s research with rhesus monkeys found that (1) ____ is more important for attachment than oral gratification. Bowlby proposed that there is a (2) ____ period for attachment and that, as a result of their experiences during this period, children develop an (3) ____ model that influences their future relationships.

Answer 74

(1) contact comfort; (2) critical; (3) internal working

Question 75

By about (4) ____ months of age, children’s attachment behaviors are directed primarily toward primary caregivers. Most babies exhibit separation anxiety by 6 to 8 months of age; and this is followed, at 8 to 10 months, by (5) ____ anxiety. In the strange situation, a(n) (6) ____ attached youngster is upset by his mother ‘s absence and actively seeks her comfort when she returns. In contrast, a(n) (7) ____ child shows little distress when his mother leaves and may ignore her when she returns. About 80% of infants who have been mistreated by their caregivers exhibit a(n) (8) ____ attachment pattern.

Answer 75

(4) six to seven; (5) stranger; (6) securely; (7) insecure/avoidant; (8) disorganized/disoriented

Question 76

Children separated from their primary caregivers prior to (9) ____ of age usually show few negative consequences, while those who are (10) ____ of age or older often exhibit disturbances in feeding and sleep, social withdrawal, and either physical rejection of the new caregiver or excessive clinging to him/her. Research on the intergenerational effects of attachment has found that parents who are categorized as dismissing on the AAI are most likely to have children who exhibit a(n) (II) ____ attachment pattern in the strange situation, while those who are categorized as preoccupied are most likely to have children with a(n) (12) ____ attachment pattern.

Answer 76

; (9) three months; (10) nine months; (11) avoidant; (12) resistant/ambivalent

Question 77

Babies soon after usually birth express and the (13) ____ emotions of interest, sadness, and disgust, and distress soon after birth and the self-conscious emotions of jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment by (14) ____ months of age.

Answer 77

(13) basic; (14) 18 to 24

Question 78

Patterson and his colleagues attribute high levels of in children to (15) ____ interactions between children and their parents and poor (16) ____ of children’s activities and have developed the Oregon model of (17) ____ that involves teaching parents effective parenting skills. Aggressive behavior has also been linked to several social-cognitive factors including a (18) ____ bias, which is the tendency to interpret the positive or ambiguous actions of others as intentionally hostile.

Answer 78

(15) coercive; (16) parental monitoring; (17) parent management training; (18) hostile attribution

Question 79

Piaget’s theory of moral development distinguishes between heteronomous and autonomous stages of morality. In the former, moral judgments are based primarily on the act’s (19) ____ in the latter, on the actor’s (20) ____ Kohlberg’s theory of moral development predicts a universal, invariant sequence of three levels: At the (21) ____ level, moral judgments are based on the desire to avoid punishment or to obtain rewards. This is followed by the (22) ____ level, in which judgments are contingent on social approval or rules and laws established by legitimate authorities.

Answer 79

(19) consequences; (20) intentions; (21) preconventional; (22) conventional

Question 80

Finally, at the (23) ____ level, moral judgments are based on democratically-determined laws or universal ethical principles. Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s theory on the grounds that it applies more to males who focus on justice and (24) ____ when making moral judgments than to females who focus more on caring and responsibility to others.

Answer 80

(23) postconventional; (24) individual rights