Prosocial Behavior and Social Environment

Question 1

____ ____ are actions that are performed with the intention of helping another person.

Answer 1

Prosocial Behaviors

Question 2

Commonly cited explanations for prosocial behavior focus on ____ ____ or ____ ____.

Answer 2

Evolutionary Processes or Social Norms

Question 3

According to ____ ____, prosocial behavior is the result of ____ ____, which refers to a biological predisposition to help genetically related others even if it is sacrificial to the self that developed as a means for ensuring the survival of our genes — i.e., by helping our offspring and other genetic relatives, we increase the likelihood of their survival and ability to pass their genes to future generations.

Answer 3

Evolutionary Theory; Kin Altruism

Question 4

Evolutionary theorists maintain that the predisposition to help kin is expanded out to ____ ____ ____, and that ____ ____ are used as a proxy for judgments of relatedness. Critics of this theory point out that people do not only help relatives but also friends and strangers who are ____ and that the theory does not explain why people are more willing to assist in some ____ than in ____.

Answer 4

Genetically Related Others; Similarity Judgements; Dissimilar; Circumstances; Others

Question 5

A more proximal cause of prosocial behaviors are ____ ____, which are general rules of conduct that are established by society to inform its members about what behaviors are expected, For example, the ____ of ____ dictates that we should help others who have helped us, whereas the ____ of ____ ____ prescribes that we should assist others who are in need of help whether or not they have helped us in the past or are likely to do so in the future.

Answer 5

Social Norms; The Norm of Reciprocity; Norm of Social Responsibility

Question 6

Psychologists interested in prosocial behaviors have looked at factors that contribute to ____ and ____ ____.

Answer 6

Cooperation and Bystander Intervention

Question 7

____: One of the best known investigations on cooperation is Sherif et al.’s ____ ____ ____. Participants were 11- and 12-year old middle-class boys attending a summer camp that was, unknown to the boys, staffed by ____. The boys were divided into two groups when they arrived at camp, and group activities were structured so as to maximize ____ ____ and ____ ____. Group members quickly became very ____ toward members of the ____ ____, with members of both groups frequently ____ ____ with ____ ____ ____ and calling them ____ ____.

Answer 7

Cooperation; Robber’s Cave Study; Researchers; Intragroup cohesiveness and Intergroup Conflict; Hostile; Opposing Group; Starting Fights with Opposing Group Members; Derogatory Names

Question 8

Sherif et al. introduced several strategies designed to reduce ____ ____. For instance, they had boys attend ____ ____ that emphasized ____, they introduced a third group that served as a “____ ____,” and they provided ____ ____ ____ ____ ____. Of the strategies used, only one — the introduction of ____ ____ that could be achieved only when members of both groups worked cooperatively was ____: Following their ____ ____ to achieve these ____, members of both groups displayed ____ ____ toward one another and many developed ____ that crossed ____ ____.

Answer 8

Intergroup Conflict; Religious Services; Cooperation; Common Enemy; Intergroup Contact under Pleasant Circumstances; Superordinate Goals; Successful; Cooperative Efforts; Goals; Less Hostility; Friendship; Group Lines

Question 9

The consequences of superordinate goals were also evaluated by Aronson and his colleagues who looked at the impact of the ____ ____ of learning for students in a fifth grade class. Students in the class were divided into ____ ____, and each team member was assigned a ____ ____ of the material to ____ and then ____ to their ____ so that each member was ____ on other ____ for ____ ____ ____ of the ____.

Answer 9

Jigsaw Method; Multiethnic Teams; Particular Section; Learn; Teach; Teammates; Dependent; Members; Learning All Parts; Material

Question 10

Results of the jigsaw method and subsequent studies found that the jigsaw method not only ____ ____ ____ and ____ ____ ____ to members of ____ ____ ____ but also enhances students’ ____, ____-____, and ____ ____ ____.

Answer 10

Reduces Ethnic Stereotyping and Increases Student’s Attraction; Different Ethnic Groups; Cooperation, Self-Esteem, and Attitudes Toward School

Question 11

While the benefits of the jigsaw method for academic achievement tend to be more ____ for ____ ____, ____ students do as well as (or a little better than) they do in a traditional classroom.

Answer 11

Pronounced for Minority Students; White

Question 12

____ ____: In 1964, a young woman named Kitty Genovese was stabbed to death in Queens, New York; and although at least _ ____ ____ the ____. not one ____ the ____ (although these reports have been questioned in recent investigations).

Answer 12

Bystander Intervention; 38 People Witnessed the Stabbing; Telephoned the Police

Question 13

To determine the causes of such ____ ____, Latane and Darley conducted a series of studies that involved exposing participants to ____ ____. Results indicated that bystanders were less likely to intervene in the ____ of ____ than when ____ and that the greater the number of bystanders, the ____ the ____ ____.

Answer 13

Bystander Apathy; Emergency Situation; Presence of Others; Alone; Greater the Bystander Apathy

Question 14

Based on their findings, Latane and Darley concluded that the unwillingness of bystanders to help in emergency situations is due to at least three factors:

Answer 14

Pluralistic Ignorance; Evaluation Apprehension; Diffusion of Responsibility

Question 15

____ ____: Bystanders conclude that assistance is unnecessary because others are not offering assistance.

Answer 15

Pluralistic Ignorance

Question 16

____ ____: Bystanders do not help because they fear social disapproval.

Answer 16

Evaluation Apprehension

Question 17

____ of ____: Bystanders do not accept personal responsibility for helping because they assume that others will offer help.

Answer 17

Diffusion of Responsibility

Question 18

Subsequent research has found that the willingness to help is influenced by several conditions: For instance, bystander intervention ____ when the ____ ____ is ____-____, the bystander feels a ____ of ____ for the ____ or feels ____ to ____, at least ____ ____ ____ has already ____, and the ____ ____ ____ in a ____ or other ____ ____.

Answer 18

Increases; Emergency Situation is Non-Ambiguous; Sense of Responsibility; Victim; Competent to Help; One other Person; Intervened; Emergency Takes Place; Rural; Uncrowded Environment

Question 19

According to evolutionary theory, prosocial behavior can be traced to (1) ____, which is a means for ensuring the survival of our genes. In contrast, social norm theories focus on the role of norms, such as the norm of (2) ____, which dictates that we should help others who have helped us. Sherifs Robber’s Cave study demonstrated that cooperation between hostile Coups is increased when group members work to achieve a (3) ____ goal.

Answer 19

(1) kin selection; (2) reciprocity; (3) superordinate

Question 20

This was also demonstrated by Aronson and his colleagues who applied the (4) ____ method to a fifth grade classroom. Results of their study indicated that this method not only reduces ethnic (5) ____ but also enhances students’ self-esteem and attitudes toward school.

Answer 20

(4) jigsaw; (5) stereotypes

Question 21

Research on bystander intervention has found that a bystander is more likely to intervene when he/she is (6) ____, when the bystander feels a sense of (7) ____ for the victim, and when the emergency situation is (8) ____.

Answer 21

(6) alone; (7) responsibility; (8) non-ambiguous

Question 22

Researchers have identified a number of factors in the ____ that affect intra- and interpersonal behavior.

Answer 22

Environment

Question 23

One of the first social psychologists to investigate the impact of the environment on human behavior was Kurt Lewin whose ____ ____ proposes that “every psychological event depends on the state of the person and at the same time on the environment, although their relative importance is different in different cases.” In other words, according to Lewin, human behavior is always a ____ of the ____ and the ____ and ____ ____; i.e., B = f(P, E).

Answer 23

Field Theory; Function; Person; Physical and Social Environment

Question 24

Lewin applied field theory to a number of intra- and interpersonal phenomena including ____, ____ ____, and ____. With regard to conflict, Lewin distinguished between three types of ____ ____ and Miller subsequently added a fourth.

Answer 24

Leadership, Group Dynamics, and Conflict; Intraindividual Conflict

Question 25

An ____-____ ____ occurs when we must choose between two equally positive or attractive goals (e.g., two equally desirable jobs). The approach-approach conflict is usually the ____ one to ____.

Answer 25

Approach-Approach Conflict; Easiest; Resolve

Question 26

An ____-____ ____ occurs when we must choose between two equally negative or unattractive goals (e.g., choosing between being laid off or accepting a lower-paid job in the company). An avoidance-avoidance conflict is ____ to ____ and can lead to ____, ____, or ____ ____ from the ____.

Answer 26

Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict; Difficult to Resolve; Indecision, Inaction, or Removing Oneself from the Situation

Question 27

An ____-____ ____ (also known as a single approach-avoidance conflict) occurs when a single goal has both positive and negative qualities (e.g., deciding whether or not to accept a promotion that comes with an increase in salary but also an increase in job-related stress). In this situation, when we move ____ to the ____ (the decision to accept the job), the avoidance force becomes ____; and, conversely, when we move farther away from the goal (the decision to refuse the job), the ____ ____ ____.

Answer 27

Approach-Avoidance Conflict; Closer to the Goal; Stronger; Approach Force Increases

Question 28

A ____ ____-____ ____ occurs when we have to choose between two goals that both have positive and negative qualities (e.g., choosing between two graduate schools that have both pros and cons). This type of conflict produces ____ between the ____ ____ and is usually the ____ ____ ____ to ____.

Answer 28

Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict; Vacillation; Two Alternatives; Most Difficult Conflict to Resolve

Question 29

Zeigarnik, one of Lewin’s students, used ____ ____ to explain the behavioral consequences of unresolved tension in the field and is probably best known for the ____ ____, which proposes that memory tends to be better for uncompleted tasks than for completed tasks because uncompleted tasks create greater “____ ____.” Note that research on the Zeigarnik effects suggests that it is most likely to occur in ____-____ ____.

Answer 29

Field Theory; Zeigarnik Effect; Psychic Tension; Non-Stressful Condition

Question 30

Interest in the impact of the environment on individual and group behavior is reflected in research on the effects of the ____ ____ and ____.

Answer 30

Ambient Environment and Crowding

Question 31

____ of the ____ ____: Factors in the ambient environment that have been linked to predictable behavioral consequences include ____ ____, ____ ____, and ____ or ____ ____.

Answer 31

Effects of the Ambient Environment; Air Pollution, High Temperatures, and Noxious or Excessive Noise

Question 32

Long-term exposure to ____ ____ has adverse effects on health and is associated with decreased cognitive performance and decreased sensitivity to social cues.

Answer 32

Air Pollution

Question 33

____ ____ have been linked to a number of negative consequences including frustration, aggressiveness, and a tendency to make risky decisions.

Answer 33

High Temperatures

Question 34

____ or ____ ____: Exposure to ____ can cause stress and irritability, interfere with the ability to concentrate, and increase aggressiveness, especially among individuals who are already angry or annoyed. Some research has found, however, that the negative effects of noise are reduced when people believe they can stop (control) the noise even when they do not actually do so.

Answer 34

Noxious or Excessive Noise; Noise

Question 35

The ____ of ____ depend on the specific circumstances. In terms of negative effects, crowding has little or no impact on ____ ____ but can ____ affect performance on ____ ____. In addition, crowding (high residential density) has been linked to ____ and ____ ____ ____, ____ ____ ____, ____ ____, and ____ ____ ____. On the positive side, people actually ____ ____ ____ at football games, rock concerts, and similar events, and they tend to ____ ____ in ____ density environments than in ____ density ones.

Answer 35

Effects of Crowding; Simple Tasks; Adversely; Complex Tasks; Physical and Mental Health Problems, Poor Academic Performance, Juvenile Delinquency, and Higher Mortality Rates; Prefer High Density; Laugh More in High; Low

Question 36

Worchel and Brown found that individuals seated ____ ____ together in a movie theater were ____ ____ to say they felt ____ when watching an ____, ____-____ (violent, sexual, or humorous) film than those watching an ____, ____ (documentary) film. Movie viewers in their study were also more likely to say they ____ the ____ ____ when it was viewed in ____ ____.

Answer 36

Very Close; Less Likely; Crowded; Arousing, Attention-Grabbing; Unarousing, Uninteresting; Enjoyed the Arousing Film; Crowded Conditions

Question 37

Several factors contribute to the effects of crowding. For instance, a ____ of ____ helps people ____ ____ with ____ situations, and people typically experience less stress when they are ____ about a ____ ____ that they are about to enter or when they are ____ by ____ ____ in the ____. Also, according to the ____ ____ ____, the different effects of crowding are due to the fact that a crowd enhances positive experiences and situations but makes unpleasant situations even more unpleasant.

Answer 37

Perception of Control; Cope Better with Crowded; Forewarned; Crowded Situation; Distracted by Other Events in the Environment; Density Intensity Hypothesis

Question 38

The effects of crowding depend on the individual’s need for ____ ____. In general, violations of personal space cause ____, ____, and ____ ____, and reduce ____ ____. However, the amount of personal space a person needs is related to several factors: Americans generally require ____ ____ ____ than individuals from France, Greece, and Latin American and Middle Eastern countries, and greater personal space is required by people ____ in ____-____ or ____ in ____.

Answer 38

Personal Space; Anxiety, Irritability, and Increased Aggression; Helping Behaviors; More Personal Space; Low in Self-Esteem; High in Authoritarianism

Question 39

In most situations, men require ____ ____ ____ than ____, and this gender difference helps explain why men tend to be more ____ to and more ____ by ____ ____ and to react more ____ than women to ____ ____.

Answer 39

More Personal Space that Women; Sensitive; Stressed by Higher Density; Aggressively; Crowded Situations

Question 40

Lewin’s field theory predicts that behavior is always a function of the person and their (1) ____ and Lewin and Miller have identified four types of intraindividual conflict: For example, a(n) (2) ____ conflict occurs when we must choose between two equally positive or attractive goals while a(n) (3) ____ conflict occurs when there are two goals to choose from that each have positive and negative qualities. The “Zeigarnik effect” refers to the fact that memory tends to be better for (4) ____ tasks, especially in non-stressful situations.

Answer 40

(l) social and physical environment; (2) approach-approach; (3) double approach-avoidance; (4) uncompleted

Question 41

Factors in the ambient environment that have been linked to predictable behavioral consequences include air pollution, high temperatures, and noxious noise. For example, exposure to noise can cause stress, irritability, and aggressiveness, although its detrimental effects tend to be reduced when people believe they can (5)____ even when they do not actually do so. Crowding is most likely to affect performance on (6) ____ tasks.

Answer 41

(5) stop (control) the noise; (6) complex

Question 42

According to the density intensity hypothesis, the different effects of crowding are due to the fact that crowding (7) ____ positive experiences and makes unpleasant experiences more unpleasant. The effects of crowding are also moderated by the amount of (8) ____ an individual requires. In general, men require (9) ____ personal space than women and tend to act more (10) ____ than women in crowded situations.

Answer 42

(7) enhances; (8) personal space; (9) more; (10) aggressively