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Anatomy/Physiology > Semester 1 Final Review > Flashcards

Semester 1 Final Review Flashcards

1
Q

above; closer to the head

A

superior

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2
Q

below; closer to the feet

A

inferior

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3
Q

closer to the midline of the body

A

medial

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4
Q

farther from the midline of the body

A

lateral

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5
Q

front side of the body

A

anterior/ventral

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6
Q

back side of the body

A

posterior/dorsal

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7
Q

farther from the outer layer of the body

A

deep

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8
Q

closer to the outer layer of the body

A

superficial

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9
Q

what are the 4 types of macromolecules?

A

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acid

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10
Q

most of these end with -ose and are soluble

A

carbohydrates

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11
Q

what are the 3 classes of carbohydrates?

A

monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides

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12
Q

name 3 monosaccharides

A

glucose
fructose
galactose

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13
Q

simple sugar

A

monosaccharides

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14
Q

2 glucose bonded to another monosaccharide

A

disaccharides

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15
Q

name 3 disaccharides

A

maltose
sucrose
lactose

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16
Q

glucose+glucose

A

maltose

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17
Q

glucose+fructose

A

sucrose

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18
Q

glucose+galactose

A

lactose

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19
Q

100s or 1000s of glucose chains; not soluble

A

polysaccharides

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20
Q

what are the functions of carbohydrates? 2

A

energy storage, structure

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21
Q

has lots of carbon and hydrogen bonds, but few oxygen bonds; no polymers or monomers

A

lipids

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22
Q

are lipids soluble or insoluble?

A

insoluble

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23
Q

what are the 3 classes of lipids?

A

fats
phospholipids
steroids

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24
Q

has double the amount of energy(ATP) than polysaccharides

A

fats

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25
Q

what is the formula for fats?

A

CH2

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26
Q

what is the structure of fats?

A

glycerol(alcohol) and 3 fatty acid tails

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27
Q

what are the 2 types of fats?

A

saturated fat
unsaturated fat

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28
Q

fat that is filled with hydrogens so all carbons must have single bonds

A

saturated fat

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29
Q

why is saturated fat unhealthy?

A

the single bonds all lay straight across and stack, making the fat very dense with no air, so water is unable to break this down and it sits in the body; this can cause heart attacks or strokes; it is solid at room temperature

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30
Q

3 fatty acid tails and at least 1 has a double bond, therefore is not completely filled with hydrogens

A

unsaturated fat

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31
Q

why is unsaturated fat healthier than saturated fat?

A

the double bonds cause the fatty acid tails to not stack and leave air in the fat, causing it to be less dense; water can break this down and it is liquid at room temperature

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32
Q

glycerol+2 fatty acid tails+phosphate; makes up the cell membrane, is permeable or semipermeable on allowing materials to go back and forth

A

phospholipids

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33
Q

4 fused rings; ex. cholesterol, testosterone, and estrogen; cholesterol is used as a membrane buffer

A

steroids

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34
Q

a polymer(made up of monomers); polymer=peptide and monomer=amino acid

A

protein

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35
Q

protein makes up ___% of the weight of the cell

A

20

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36
Q

what are the functions of protein? (7)

A

-support
-movement
-transport
-buffer
-metabolic regulation
-defense
-recognition/communication

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37
Q

examples of proteins???

A

enzymes
active sites
substrates

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38
Q

speed up reactions

A

enzymes

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39
Q

where substrates fit to make an enzyme work properly

A

active sites

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40
Q

proteins that fit inside active sites

A

substrates

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41
Q

2 types: DNA and RNA; polymer(made up of monomers), monomer=nucleotides and polymer=_______________; have the info to make all proteins

A

nucleic acids

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42
Q

what are the 3 types of RNA?

A

tRNA
mRNA
rRNA

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43
Q

carry amino acids to ribosomes

A

tRNA

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44
Q

is the ribosome

A

rRNA

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45
Q

carries info from DNA(makes copies)

A

mRNA

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46
Q

what are the 3 parts of a nucleotide?

A

phosphate group
5-carbon sugar
nitrogen base

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47
Q

formula of phosphate

A

PO4

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48
Q

3 examples of 5-carbon sugar

A

pentose
ribose
deoxyribose

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49
Q

what are the 5 nitrogen bases?

A

adenine
thymine
guanine
cytosine
uracil/urasine

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50
Q

what is a purine made up of?

A

adenine and guanine

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51
Q

what is a pyrimidine made up of?

A

thymine, cytosine, and uracil/urasine

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52
Q

what is the monomer of nucleic acids?

A

nucleotides

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53
Q

what are the 2 functions of DNA?

A

-is the recipe for putting proteins together
-carries genetic info for the cell and does not leave the nucleus

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54
Q

where is DNA and RNA located?

A

everywhere throughout the cell

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55
Q

what are the 2 functions of RNA?

A

-copy of the original recipe
-carries genetic info that leaves the nucleus

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56
Q

what are the 4 types of tissue?

A

epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous

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57
Q

composed of epithelic and glands; covers all internal and external surfaces

A

epithelial

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58
Q

examples of internal epithelial tissue (3)

A

cavities, tubes, and glands

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59
Q

example of external epithelial tissue

A

skin

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60
Q

what are the 4 functions of epithelial tissue?

A

-physical protection
-controls permeability
-provides sensation
-secretion

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61
Q

what are the 4 functions of epithelial tissue?

A

-physical protection
-controls permeability
-provides sensation
-secretion

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62
Q

what are the 2 types of glands in epithelial tissue?

A

exocrine and endocrine

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63
Q

move a secretion to the free surface side of epithelial; exocytosis

A

exocrine

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64
Q

4 examples of exocrine secretion

A

mammary gland
salivary gland
sweat
oil

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65
Q

moves a secretion away from the free surface side into surrounding tissue area

A

endocrine

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66
Q

3 examples of places endocrine secretion

A

thyroid, testes, and ovaries

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67
Q

what are the 3 requirements for connective tissue?

A

-cells must be separated
-must have ground substance
-there must be fibers in between cells

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68
Q

what are the 3 types of fibers found in between connective tissue cells?

A

collagen
elastic
reticular

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69
Q

thickest fibers, unbranched, stackable, gives strength and support, flexible

A

collagen fibers

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70
Q

thick fibers, wavy, branched, recoil when stretched (pina of ear)

A

elastic fibers

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71
Q

thinnest fibers; lots of branches(goes in multiple directions)

A

reticular fibers

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72
Q

what are the 3 different ground substances in connective tissue?

A

-connective tissue proper(gel)
-liquid connective tissue(liquid)
-supportive connective tissue(solid

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73
Q

what are the 2 types of connective tissue proper(gel-like substance)?

A

loose and dense connective

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74
Q

does not have many protein fibers, is not very organized, and has lots of gel/space between cells

A

loose connective

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75
Q

what are the 4 types of cells in loose connective?

A

-fibroblasts
-adipocytes
-WBCs
-mast cells

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76
Q

what cells produce protein fibers?

A

fibroblasts

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77
Q

what are fat cells called?

A

adipocytes

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78
Q

which cells are vasodialators?

A

mast cells

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79
Q

what are the 2 types of WBCs in loose connective?

A

phagocytes and macrophages

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80
Q

where is loose connective located?

A

under all skin and around most organs and major blood vessels

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81
Q

what are the 4 functions of loose connective?

A

storage
cushion
insulation
defend against infection

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82
Q

in what tissue are cells dominated by fibers and is avascular?

A

dense connective

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83
Q

what are the 3 types of dense connective?

A

-tendon
-ligament
-irregular/reticular dense connective

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84
Q

connect muscle to bone; composed of collagen fibers

A

tendon

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85
Q

connect bone to bone; contain both collagen and elastic fibers equally

A

ligament

86
Q

contain reticular fibers; flexible; attaches skin to anywhere else

A

irregular/reticular dense connective

87
Q

what are the 2 types of liquid connective tissue?

A

blood and lymph

88
Q

what are the 3 cells in blood?

A

RBCs
WBCs
platelets

89
Q

what are the 3 functions of blood/blood cells?

A

RBCs-carries oxygen
WBCs-defend against infection
platelets-clotting

90
Q

where is blood located?

A

arteries, veins/blood vessels, and capillaries

91
Q

what cell is in lymph and what is it used for?

A

WBCs and they are used for defense against infection

92
Q

where is lymph located?

A

lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes?

93
Q

what are the 2 types of supportive connective tissue?

A

cartilage and bone

94
Q

what type of cell makes up cartilage?

A

chondrocytes

95
Q

ground substance is similar to rubber cement or an eraser; all avascular(therefore cannot repair itself)

A

cartilage

96
Q

what are the 3 types of cartilage?

A

hyaline, elastic, and fibrous

97
Q

the most common type of cartilage; contains mostly collagen fibers; located between the ribs and sternum; surrounds and supports respiratory tubes

A

hyaline

98
Q

mostly elastic fibers; stained black; found in the epiglottis, pina of ear, and tip of the nose

A

elastic

99
Q

contains both collagen and elastic fibers and they are more abundant than the other types of cartilage; has “fish/shark eyes; found in between vertebrae and hip bones”

A

fibrous

100
Q

ground substance is cement-like; contains almost all collagen fibers to prevent shattering; one of the most vascular tissues(therefore can repair itself)

A

bone

101
Q

found at the end of bones

A

lacunae

102
Q

levels of organization: chemicals/molecules found within the cell; ex. H2O, O2, CO2, sucrose, acetylcholine?

A

chemical/molecular

103
Q

levels of organization: groups of chemicals/molecules working together for a function; ex. organelles, mitochondria, nucleus, etc. OR RBC, WBC, chondrocyte, etc.

A

cellular

104
Q

levels of organization: group of cells working together for a function; ex. connective, epithelial, muscular, nervous

A

tissue

105
Q

levels of organization: a group of tissues working together for a function; ex. heart, brain, stomach

A

organ

106
Q

levels of organization: a group of organs working together for a function; ex. circulatory, respiratory

A

organ systems

107
Q

levels of organization: all organ systems working together to sustain life; ex. a human

A

organism

108
Q

what is the cell found in nervous tissue?

A

neuron

109
Q

what are the 3 types of muscle?

A

skeletal
cardiac
smooth

110
Q

long fibers, unbranched, multinucleated, striated, voluntary

A

skeletal muscle

111
Q

maintains blood pressure; branched, striated, involuntary, short, 1 nucleus

A

cardiac muscle

112
Q

found lining tubes and cavities; short, 1 nucleus, unstriated, can shorten in all directions, involuntary, unbranched

A

smooth muscle

113
Q

what are the 5 functions of bone?

A

-support/structure
-protection
-production of blood cells
-storage
-leverage

114
Q

strongest, most dense type of bone

A

compact bone

115
Q

not organized; spaces between spikes(trabecula)

A

spongy bone

116
Q

circular layers of bone

A

lamella

117
Q

contain blood vessels that go from cell to cell

A

caneliculi

118
Q

cells: make the bone when told to do so because of high levels of calcium

A

osteoblasts

119
Q

cells: maintain bone; bone is made by osteoblasts, which become ____________

A

osteocytes

120
Q

cells: huge cells with 50 nuclei and lots of vesicles containing acid and digestive enzymes; increase blood levels when low

A

osteoclasts

121
Q

what does the outside of the periosteum do?

A

attach structures to bone

122
Q

what does the inside of the periosteum do?

A

contain stem cells that become osteoblasts when needed

123
Q

lines the cavity of the bone marrow, contains stem cells

A

endosteum

124
Q

large tube in the middle of each osteon; contains and artery, vein, and nerve

A

harvesian canal

125
Q

hyaline cartilage found at joints

A

articular cartilage

126
Q

osteocytes are arranged in concentric layers around a central/harvesian canal; basic functional unit of compact bone; only in compact bone

A

osteon

127
Q

the making of ATP from glucose(organic macromolecule) with the presence of oxygen

A

aerobic respiration

128
Q

what are the 3 stages of aerobic respiration?

A

glycolysis, kreb’s/tca cycle, and etc

129
Q

what is the only stage in anaerobic respiration?

A

glycolysis

130
Q

enzymes take glucose and cut it in half(2 C3H6O3) and 2 carriers take 1 H off of each half (2 C3H5O3); this is done in the cytosol of the cell; hydrogen is released

A

glycolysis

131
Q

what is the result of glycolysis?

A

2 pyruvates(C3H5O3), 2 carriers, and 2 ATP

132
Q

what is TCA?

A

tricarboxylic acid

133
Q

done in the matrix/cytosol of the mitochondria by enzymes; pyruvates are brought in and 10 more carriers are taken out; all H’s are gone on carriers; waste is CO2

A

kreb’s/tca cycle

134
Q

done in the inner mitochondrial membrane by membrane proteins; 12 carriers are brought in along with O2; P is put back on ADP to make ATP

A

etc

135
Q

what is ETC?

A

electron transport chain

136
Q

how long does stored ATP last during activity?

A

1-2 seconds

137
Q

what is used after all of the stored ATP is used?

A

creatine phosphate(CP)

138
Q

what controls the production of creatine phosphate?

A

creatine phosphokinase (CPK)

139
Q

creatine+ATP=

A

creatine phosphate+ADP

140
Q

how much ATP is made from glycolysis?

A

2

141
Q

how much ATP is made from kreb’s/tca cycle?

A

2

142
Q

how much ATP is made from etc?

A

32

143
Q

no gasping=

A

you are getting enough oxygen to your muscle cells

144
Q

gasping=

A

you are not getting enough oxygen to your muscle cells

145
Q

why do you run out of energy quicker during an anaerobic workout?

A

you only get 2 ATP per glucose, whereas in aerobic respiration, you get 36 per glucose

146
Q

yellow, orange pigment found/stored in the stratum germinativum; used to produce Vitamin A; for the retina of the eye

A

carotene

147
Q

what is the function of carotene?

A

to stabilize stem cells

148
Q

a fibrous protein that makes up parts of the integumentary system; hair, nails, and cells in the epidermis

A

keratin

149
Q

what are the layers of the cutaneous membrane from bottom to top?

A

stratum germinativum
stratum spinosum
stratum granulosum
stratum lucidum
stratum corneum

150
Q

stimulated when it comes in contact with UV damage; made by melanocytes

A

melanin

151
Q

why does skin turn a red/pink color when embarrassed or overheated?

A

blood vessels are completely open and blood fills the papillary layer

152
Q

why does skin turn a blue/purple/grey/ashen tone and what is this called?

A

not enough blood goes to the papillary layer and it is caused by bad circulation, heart attack, respiratory and lung issues; called cyanosis

153
Q

what is the function of lipids?

A

cell communication

154
Q

what are HDL and LDL?

A

high density lipo(protein) and low density lipo

155
Q

what are the 3 stages of interphase?

A

G1, S, G2

156
Q

what are the 5 stages of interphase?

A

prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokinesis

157
Q

first gap; normal life of the cell

A

G1

158
Q

DNA is doubled(replication); done by enzyme DNA polymerase

A

S

159
Q

double everything else(cytosol, organelles)

A

G2

160
Q

centrosomes form and move to the poles from the microtubules

A

prophase

161
Q

all chromosomes are lined up at ___________ plates; centrosomes are at pole; all chromosomes are at microtubules

A

metaphase

162
Q

chromosomes split and move to poles

A

anaphase

163
Q

al chromosomes are at the poles and nuclear membranes form

A

telophase

164
Q

cleavage furrow forms cell into 2 cells

A

cytokinesis

165
Q

what are the 4 functions of hair?

A

-block UV light(head)
-deflect blows to the head
-traps dust/debris(pubic)
-attractant to the opposite sex

166
Q

lead hair into and put it into follicle; produces sebum; holocrine secretion; stimulated by sex hormones

A

sebaceous glands

167
Q

what is the function of sebum/sebaceous glands?

A

lubricate hair/skin

168
Q

what are the 2 types of sweat/sudiferous glands?

A

apocrine and merocrine

169
Q

uses merocrine secretion; only located in the armpit and groin; odorus; secretion is cloudy in appearance

A

apocrine sweat glands

170
Q

uses merocrine secretion; covers 99% of the body; secretes swet; anti-microbial region

A

merocrine sweat glands

171
Q

release earwax; trap materials

A

ceruminous glands

172
Q

apocrine secretion; makes milk

A

mammary gland

173
Q

what 2 accessory structures are stratified squamous?

A

hair and nails

174
Q

attached to the basement membrane with hemidesmosomes

A

stratum germinativum

175
Q

what are the 3 types of cells in the stratum germinativum?

A

-germinativum cells
-germinativum cells’ daughter cells
-melanocytes

176
Q

thin; new cells that are pushed up from the stratum germinativum still go through mitosis; includes dermal papilla and epidermal ridges for more surface area for stem cells

A

stratum spinosum

177
Q

makes granules; cells fill with keratin from granules

A

stratum granulosum

178
Q

one clear layer; not in thin skin, only in thick

A

stratum lucidum

179
Q

top layer; cells have become keratinized; about 15-30 layers thick and takes cells about 4 weeks to get here

A

stratum corneum

180
Q

contain dermal papilla; contains loose connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels

A

papillary layer

181
Q

under the papillary layer; has lots of reticular fibers and some collagen and elastic fibers; less strength but strength goes in multiple directions due to the branching of reticular fibers

A

reticular layer

182
Q

epithelial+loose and dense underneath=

A

cutaneous membrane

183
Q

what stimulates the contraction of a skeletal muscle?

A

central nervous system(CNS)

184
Q

what is the name of the site where a nerve comes in contact with a skeletal muscle?

A

neuromuscular junction

185
Q

what is the function of a neurotransmitter?

A

communication with muscles

186
Q

where is the synaptic cleft located?

A

in the space between nerves and muscle

187
Q

what breaks a neurotransmitter down after it is released into the synaptic cleft?

A

an enzyme

188
Q

chains of glucose with no branches; plant

A

amylose

189
Q

chains of glucose with branches; plant

A

amylopectin

190
Q

chains of glucose with lots of branching

A

glycogen

191
Q

required for the human diet; contains fiber, which cleans intestines; fungus uses this in their cell walls

A

cellulose

192
Q

what are the 2 divisions of the nervous system?

A

central(CNS) and peripheral(PNS)

193
Q

what are the 3 functions of the nervous system?

A

-receive info (from internal and external conditions of the body)
-coordinate all incoming info (from sense and preset conditions)
-send info away (to contract/not contract a muscle)

194
Q

is made up of the brain and spinal cord

A

CNS

195
Q

is made up of cranial and spinal nerves

A

PNS

196
Q

how many cranial nerves are there?

A

12

197
Q

how many spinal nerves are there?

A

31

198
Q

what are the 2 main branches of the PNS?

A

afferent branch and efferent branch

199
Q

any incoming info from the CNS; sensory nerves

A

afferent division

200
Q

what are the 2 divisions of the afferent branch of the PNS?

A

somatic sensory receptors and visceral sensory receptors

201
Q

sensory info from conscious outside world info(ex. smell, touch, temp) and our position in it

A

somatic sensory receptors

202
Q

sensory info of internal conditions(ex. pH of blood, Ca+, Na+)

A

visceral sensory receptors

203
Q

any incoming info from the CNS; sensory nerves

A

afferent branch

203
Q

take away info/exiting the CNS; motor neurons

A

efferent branch

203
Q

take away info/exiting the CNS; motor neurons

A

efferent branch

204
Q

any incoming info from the CNS; sensory nerves

A

afferent branch

205
Q

what are the 2 divisions of the efferent branch of the PNS?

A

somatic nervous system and autonomic/visceral nervous system

206
Q

controls voluntary, skeletal muscles

A

somatic nervous system

207
Q

controls involuntary, smooth and cardiac muscles

A

autonomic/visceral nervous system

208
Q

what are the 2 branches of the autonomic nervous system?

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic division

209
Q

fight or flight response; heart speeds up, more blood to skeletal muscles and less blood to other areas with other muscle(ex. digestive system)

A

sympathetic division

210
Q

rest and digest; heart slows down, more blood is directed to digestive system and less to skeletal muscle

A

parasympathetic division

Anatomy/Physiology (27 decks)

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