1.3 The water cycle and water insecurity

Question 1

What % of the world’s water do oceans store?

Answer 1

97%

Question 2

What % of the world’s water is freshwater?

Answer 2

2.5%

Question 3

Of the freshwater, what % is stored in glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets?

Answer 3

69%

Question 4

Of the freshwater, what % is stored as ground water?

Answer 4

30%

Question 5

Of the freshwater, what % is surface and other freshwater sources?

Answer 5

1%

Question 6

What are other surface and freshwater stores made up of?

Answer 6

permafrost, lakes, swamps, marshes, rivers and living organisms.

Question 7

Define blue water

Answer 7

water stored in lakes, rivers, streams, and ground water, in liquid form

Question 8

Define green water

Answer 8

water stored in soil and vegetation

Question 9

Define grey water

Answer 9

waste bath, sink, and washing water

Question 10

Describe the hydrology in polar regions (6)

Answer 10

▪ 85% of solar radiation is reflected
▪ Permafrost creates impermeable surfaces
▪ Lakes and rivers freeze
▪ Rapid runoff in spring
▪ Seasonal release of biogenic gases into atmosphere
▪ Orographic and frontal precipitation

Question 11

Describe the hydrology in tropical rainforests (6)

Answer 11

▪ Dense vegetation consuming 75% of precipitation
▪ There is limited infiltration
▪ Deforestation leads to less evapotranspiration and precipitation
▪ Very high temperatures
▪ Very humid
▪ Convectional rainfall

Question 12

Describe the Inter-Tropical Continental Zone (ITCZ)

Answer 12

• The Earth consist of six cells of circulating air, which form the globe’s climate control
• There are 3 in the northern hemisphere, and 3 in the opposite direction in the southern hemisphere

Question 13

Define drainage basin

Answer 13

• A drainage basin is an open subsystem operating within the closed global hydrological cycle.
• an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries with a boundary (known as the watershed), usually composing of hills and mountains. `

Question 14

Define drainage basin

Answer 14

• A drainage basin is an open subsystem operating within the closed global hydrological cycle.
• It’s defined as an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries with a boundary (known as the watershed), usually composing of hills and mountains.

Question 15

is the water cycle an open or closed system?

Answer 15

• On a local scale, the water cycle is an open system
• on a global scale, the water cycle a closed systems

Question 16

What is the main input into a drainage basin?

Answer 16

precipitation

Question 17

Cause of precipitation

Answer 17

Precipitation is caused by the cooling and condensation of water moisture in the atmosphere, forming clouds that release moisture in the form of rain, snow, hail, sleet, etc.

Question 18

Factors affecting volume or condition of precipitation (3)

Answer 18

• seasonality
• climate variability
• latititude

Question 19

How does seasonality affect precipitation?

Answer 19

• In some climates (such as monsoon and Mediterranean) there are strong seasonal patterns of rainfall.
• Therefore the time of year determines the precipitation input within the drainage basin

Question 20

How does climate variability affect precipitation?

Answer 20

• sudden or long term changes to the climate can happen, which would affect precipitation levels and so the drainage basin as a whole.
  → Secular Variability – long term (for example as a result of climate change trends)
  → Periodic Variability – annual, seasonal or monthly context
  → Stochastic Variability – random factors like localisation of thunderstorm

Question 21

How does latitude affect precipitation?

Answer 21

• The location of the drainage basin has a major impact on climate, and so the volume and type of precipitation falling.
• In most cases, the higher the latitude from the Equator, the colder the climate, and so snowfall occurs more often than rainfall.
• Also, at latitudes where air cells converge (ITCZ), the climate will be categorised by the rise or fall of air

Question 22

Name the three types of rainfall

Answer 22

• convectional
• frontal/cyclonic
• relief/orographic

Question 23

Describe convectional rainfall

Answer 23

• Often a daily occurance.
• The morning heat warms the ground, which in turn heats low-level moisture (from plant dew or surface stores).
• This moisture evaporates and rises.
• As the air rises, it cools and the moisture within will condense, to form rain and in turn (as more moisture accumulates) rainfall.
• In tropical climates, convectional rainfall is most common; within tropical rainforests, rainfall occurs mid-morning before the temperature rises too high for condensation to occur.

Question 24

Describe frontal/cyclonic rainfall

Answer 24

• Where two air masses meet, a wedge can occur of hot air within cold air - this is called a depression.
• At the front (were the two air masses meet), warm moist air is forced to rise above the cold air mass, causing the water moisture within to cool and condense, to form cyclonic precipitation.
• Depressions are very common to the UK - approx 100 depressions hit the UK each year.

Question 25

Describe relief/orographic rainfall

Answer 25

- When warm, moist air (often travelling onto land from sea) meets land of high relief (e.g. hills), the air mass is forced to rise above the hill to continue travelling. - As it rises, the air mass cools and the moisture within condenses, to form clouds and rainfall. - Orographic rainfall depends on the relief and location of the land immediate after the sea - many coastal landscapes are too cold, low lying or hills are set too far inland for relief rainfall to occur - causes rain shadow on other side of high land

Question 26

Define discharge

Answer 26

the volume of water passing a certain point in the channel over a certain amount of time

Question 27

Name the flows within a drainage basin (6)

Answer 27

- interception - infiltration - surface runoff - throughflow - percolation - groundwater

Question 28

How does relief affect basin flows?

Answer 28

There are many flows within the drainage basin, many due to gravity and so depend on the relief of the land

Question 29

Describe interception

Answer 29

- Interception is the direct intervention of plants’ leaves in changing the direction or temporarily stopping precipitation as it falls to the surface. - Any moisture retained by the surface of the leaf (interception store) is generally greatest at the start of storms. - A plant’s interception capacity varies depending on the type of vegetation.

Question 30

Describe infliltration

Answer 30

The movement of water from the surface into the soil

Question 31

Define infiltration capacity

Answer 31

The infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at which water can be absorbed by the soil

Question 32

Factors affecting infiltration capacity (5)

Answer 32

▪ Soil Composition – Sandy soils have higher infiltration rates compared to clay. ▪ Previous precipitation - The saturation of soils will reduce infiltration rates, hence surface runoff increases after long, intense periods of rainfall. ▪ Type and amount of vegetation - dense root growth can inhibit the infiltration of water, and interception of plants’ leaves will delay infiltration ▪ Compaction of soils will reduce the infiltration rate. ▪ Relief of land – sloped land will encourage more runoff, therefore less infiltration as a direct result

Question 33

Describe surface runoff

Answer 33

- Water flows overland, rather than permeating deeper levels of the ground. - Overland flow occurs faster where the gradient of land is greater. - Surface runoff if the primary transfer of water to river channels, hence heavily influencing their discharge - Moderate/Fast rate of water transfer

Question 34

Describe throughflow

Answer 34

- Water moves laterally through the soil and into streams or rivers. - Speed of flow is dependent on the type of soil - Clay soils with a high field capacity and smaller pore spaces have a slower flow rate - Sandy soils drain quickly because they have a lower field capacity, larger pore spaces and natural channels from animals such as worms. - Moderate/Fast rate of water transfer

Question 35

Describe percolation

Answer 35

- Water moves from the ground or soil into porous rock or rock fractures (deeper bedrock and aquifers). - The percolation rate is dependent on the fractures that may be present in the rock and the permeability of the rock - Slow rate of water transfer

Question 36

Describe groundwater flow

Answer 36

- The gradual transfer of water through porous rock, under the influence of gravity. - Water can sometimes become trapped within these deeper layers of bedrock, creating aquifers and long water stores for the drainage basin - Slow rate of water transfer

Question 37

Outputs of the drainage basin (2)

Answer 37

- evaporation - transpiration

Question 38

Describe evaporation

Answer 38

This is the direct loss of water moisture from the surface of a body of water, the soil and interception storage (on top of leaves) to the atmosphere

Question 39

Factors increasing evaporation rate (4)

Answer 39

- Evaporation rates increase when the weather is warmer, windier and dryer. - Volume and surface area of the water body - the larger the surface area, the faster the rate of evaporation. - Vegetation cover or built environment surrounding the water - anything that reduces direct sunlight to the water body will reduce evaporation. - The colour of the surface beneath the water - black tarmac will absorb heat faster than white snow, and so evaporation will occur faster on the tarmac

Question 40

Describe transpiration

Answer 40

This is a biological process where water is lost to the atmosphere through the pores of plants (stomata)

Question 41

Factors affecting transpiration rates (4)

Answer 41

- seasonality - type of vegetation - moisture content of the air - time of day

Question 42

Stores of water (5)

Answer 42

- soil water (mid-term) - groundwater (long-term) - river channel (short-term) - interception (short-term) - surface water (variable)

Question 43

Define cryosphere

Answer 43

areas of the earth where water is frozen into snow or ice

Question 44

Define fluxes

Answer 44

the rate of flow between the stores

Question 45

Define residence time

Answer 45

the average time a water molecule will spend in a store

Question 46

Define water table

Answer 46

The water table is the upper level at which the pore spaces and fractures in the ground become saturated.

Question 47

Physical factors affecting the drainage basin (6)

Answer 47

- climate - soil composition - geology - relief - vegetation - size

Question 48

How does climate affect a drainage basin?

Answer 48

influences amount of rainfall and vegetation growth.

Question 49

How does soil composition affect a drainage basin?

Answer 49

influences rate of infiltration and throughflow.

Question 50

How does geology affect a drainage basin?

Answer 50

- affects percolation and groundwater flow - permeability of rock, angle of strata

Question 51

How does relief affect a drainage basin?

Answer 51

steeper gradients of land will encourage faster rates of surface runoff

Question 52

How does vegetation affect a drainage basin?

Answer 52

- affects interception, overland flow - as vegetation becomes wetter, interception effectiveness decreases - vegetation type and cover affect interception rate

Question 53

How does size affect a drainage basin?

Answer 53

larger basins collect more precipitation generally

Question 54

Human factors affecting drainage basins (8)

Answer 54

- cloud seeding - deforestation - afforestation - dam construction - change in land use - ground water abstraction - irrigation - urbanisation

Question 55

Describe cloud seeding

Answer 55

- silver iodide released by a plane or ground based generator - silver iodide particles reach the targeted cloud - silver iodide aids in the formation of ice crystals - ice crystals become large enough to fall and create snow

Question 56

How does deforestation affect a drainage basin?

Answer 56

Less vegetation means less interception, less infiltration, more overland flow, leading to more flooding, cycle speeds up

Question 57

How does afforestation affect a drainage basin?

Answer 57

More vegetation means interception, less overland flow, more evapotranspiration

Question 58

How does dam construction affect a drainage basin?

Answer 58

Dams reduce downstream river flow and discharge, increase surface stores so more evaporation

Question 59

How do changes in land use affect a drainage basin?

Answer 59

- Infiltration is 5 times faster under forests compared to grasslands. - Converting land to farmland means less interception, increased soil compaction and more surface runoff

Question 60

How does ground water abstraction affect a drainage basin?

Answer 60

When water is taken out faster that the water is recharged, groundwater flow decreases and the water table drops

Question 61

How does irrigation affect a drainage basin?

Answer 61

Drop in water tables due to high water usage.

Question 62

How does urbanisation affect a drainage basin?

Answer 62

- Impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration, increase surface runoff, river discharge increase. - Cycle speeds up

Question 63

What do water budgets show?

Answer 63

the annual difference between inputs and outputs

Question 64

Precipitation equation

Answer 64

Precipitation = discharge + evaporation +/- changes in stores

Question 65

Define positive water balance

Answer 65

precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration, perhaps causing flooding

Question 66

Define negative water balance

Answer 66

evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, potentially leads to droughts

Question 67

Define soil moisture recharge

Answer 67

As precipitation exceeds evaporation rates, the soil will regain moisture and reduce its deficit

Question 68

Define soil moisture surplus

Answer 68

when soil has become saturated so excess water has difficulty soaking into the ground

Question 69

Define soil moisture deficit

Answer 69

when all the water in soil has been used up by evapotranspiration

Question 70

Define soil moisture utilisation

Answer 70

As temperature increases, the rate of evaporation will increase. The soil uses the moisture gained during its surplus so there is a reduction in the amount of water stored in the soil. Some is transferred at throughflow

Question 71

Define river regime

Answer 71

the annual variation in discharge of a river at a particular location

Question 72

Describe seasonal variations in river regime

Answer 72

- periods of high discharge followed by low discharge - due to glacial meltwater, snowmelt or monsoons which cause sudden fluctuations in river input

Question 73

Factors affecting the characteristics of a river's regime (6)

Answer 73

- Channel capacity of the river - Area and relief of the drainage basin - Volume, pattern and intensity of precipitation - Climate - Geology of the soil (affecting the input of groundwater) - Human activities, such as building dams or terracing the land.

Question 74

what do storm hydrographs show?

Answer 74

- Storm hydrographs represent the variation in discharge within a short period of time (days, rather than years) - Before a storm begins, the main supply of water to the river is through groundwater or base flow. - However, as a storm develops, infiltration and surface runoff will increase which causes a greater throughflow.

Question 75

Features of a storm hydrograph (5)

Answer 75

▪ Rising limb (increase of river discharge) ▪ Peak flow (maximum discharge, delayed after maximum precipitation has occurred) ▪ Lag time (time delay between peak rainfall and peak discharge) ▪ Falling limb (As the storm precipitation levels decrease, discharge will in turn decrease) ▪ Base flow (discharge returns to its normal level)

Question 76

Factors influencing hydrographs (8)

Answer 76

- weather/climate - rock type - soil - relief - basin size - vegetation - pre-existing conditions (e.g. basin being wet from previous rainfall) - human activity (urbanisation, deforestation, dams)

Question 77

Management schemes that try to reduce surface run off (4)

Answer 77

▪ Growing vegetation on roofs, to increase interception and temporarily stores some water within plants. ▪ Create permeable pavements (gaps within paving blocks) to increase infiltration and reduce surface runoff . ▪ Rainwater Harvesting – collecting rainwater to use as domestic greywater ▪ Creating wetlands that will act as natural sponges and increase temporary water storage.

Question 78

Impacts of human development on a basin (4)

Answer 78

▪ Deforestation - Soil becomes exposed and roots are lost, which leads to more soil erosion and so more surface runoff. ▪ Impermeable surfaces – As more tarmac and concrete is laid, less infiltration into the topsoil can occur, and so more surface runoff occurs. ▪ Bridges can act as dams for rivers, restricting channel flow and increasing the pressure the river’s water is under, worsening flood impacts. ▪ Drainage and sewage systems will reduce lag time, and so a quick flow of water back to rivers, increasing the risk of flash flooding.

Question 79

Define drought

Answer 79

a deficit in the hydrological cycle

Question 80

Types of drought (4)

Answer 80

- Meteorological (rainfall deficit) - hydrological (stream flow deficit) - agricultural (soil moisture deficit) - socio-economic (food deficit)

Question 81

meteorological drought - features (5)

Answer 81

- Low precipitation - High temperatures - Strong winds - Increased solar radiation - Reduced snow cover

Question 82

Meteorological drought - impacts (3)

Answer 82

- Loss of soil moisture - Irrigation supply drops - Reduction in water available for consumption.

Question 83

Hydrological drought - features (3)

Answer 83

- Reduced infiltration - Low soil moisture - Little percolation and groundwater recharge

Question 84

Hydrological drought - impacts (4)

Answer 84

- Reduced storage in lakes and reservoirs - Less water for urban supply - Poorer water quality - Threats to wetlands and habitats

Question 85

Agricultural drought - features (3)

Answer 85

- Low evapotranspiration - Reduced biomass - Fall in groundwater level

Question 86

Agricultural drought - impacts (5)

Answer 86

- Poor yields from rainfed crops - Failing irrigation systems - Livestock productivity falls - Rural industries affected - Government aid may be required

Question 87

Socio-economic drought - features (4)

Answer 87

- Loss of vegetation - Increased risk of wildfires - Soil erosion - Desertification

Question 88

Socio-economic drought - impacts (6)

Answer 88

- Widespread failure of agricultural systems - Food shortages - Rural economy collapses - Rural to urban migration - International aid required - Humanitarian crisis

Question 89

What does ENSO stand for?

Answer 89

El Nino Southern Oscillation

Question 90

Describe normal conditions under ENSO

Answer 90

- wind travels westwards over pacific, taking warm surface waters with it - Cold Peruvian current that flows northwards along west coast of South America is drawn into circulation and flows westwards - as it flows west it is heated by the sun - warm moist air rises over Indonesia, creating low-pressure and heavy rain - air the circulates and sinks over Western South America, creating high pressure and dry conditions

Question 91

Define El Nino

Answer 91

- El Nino is the change in water body patterns within the Southern hemisphere, leading to unusual weather conditions - usually occurs every 3 to 7 years, generally lasting for 18 months.

Question 92

impacts of El Nino

Answer 92

- pressure systems and weather patterns reverse - warmer waters develop in the eastern Pacific - low pressure forms, drawing in westerly winds from the pacific - Warm moist air rises, creating heavy rainfall over the east pacific - the air then circulates west - ENSO can also trigger extremely dry conditions in areas South & South-East Asia, Eastern Australia and North-East Brazil. - In South Asia ENSO can weaken the annual monsoon

Question 93

Describe la nina

Answer 93

- normal conditions intensify - low pressure over the western pacific becomes lower, and high pressure over the eastern pacific higher - rainfall increases over Southeast Asia, and South America suffers drought - Trade winds strengthen due to increased pressure difference between the two areas - La nina can occur just before or after el nino

Question 94

Functions of wetlands (3)

Answer 94

- Wetlands act as temporary water stores within the hydrological cycle, which can help mitigate from river floods due to sudden storm discharge. - Chemically, wetlands act like water filters by trapping and recycling nutrients and pollutants, which helps to maintain water quality of the river. - Wetlands have very high biological productivity and support a very diverse food web, providing nursery areas for fish and refuges for migrating birds

Question 95

How are wetlands valuable for supporting life?

Answer 95

- Stores and flows of carbon (through vegetation and soils/peat) - Nutrient recycling

Question 96

How are wetlands valuable for providing resources?

Answer 96

- Fuelwood - Fisheries - Mammals and bird for tourism

Question 97

How are wetlands valuable for regulating conditions?

Answer 97

- Regular supply of groundwater and so base flow of river - Water purification - Reduced flood risk

Question 98

Describe the cultural value of wetlands

Answer 98

- Aesthetic value - Recreational use - Cultural heritage

Question 99

How do meteorological droughts impact wetlands?

Answer 99

Meteorological droughts have a major impact on wetlands; reduced interception due to less precipitation will cause vegetation to wilt and die, which in turn impacts soil nutrients levels and the rest of the complex food web.

Question 100

Physical causes of desertification

Answer 100

- reduced precipitation - global warming

Question 101

How does reduced precipitation caused desertification?

Answer 101

- As vegetation dies, the protective layer it provided for the soil will also be removed. - As a result, the soil will be increasingly exposed to wind and rain, which will accelerate the rate of soil erosion, leading to worsening soil conditions. - This may cause a positive feedback loop of worsening soil condition and vegetation death, leading to desertification.

Question 102

How does global warming cause desertification?

Answer 102

- The rise in average climatic temperatures will increase the rate of evaporation of water moisture, especially in tropical and sub-saharan climates. - If more moisture has evaporated, less will be available for convectional rainfall, and so plant growth will be stunted and vegetation dies (leading to desertification)

Question 103

How does population growth cause desertification?

Answer 103

- Population growth is the root cause of the recent increase in rates of desertification. - As populations increase, the demand for food, water and other resources also increases. - As pressure for food increases, agricultural methods change to supply the demand

Question 104

How does increased agriculture cause desertification?

Answer 104

- cattle farming is becoming intensified resulting in large areas of forest being cut down to provide enough land for grazing. - Intensification of crop farming means the time between crop harvest and new planting will be reduced. - These practices can cause over-cultivation, trampling of vegetation and loss of soil nutrients which reduces soil fertility. - forests may be felled or slashed-and-burned to make room for new farms or housing, further worsening soil quality and exposing the topsoil to erosion.

Question 105

Why is low-lying land more vulnerable to water surpluses?

Answer 105

River flooding can occur along with groundwater flooding as the ground become saturated, therefore any surface close to the water table is vulnerable to flooding.

Question 106

Why are urbanised, built environments more vulnerable to water surpluses?

Answer 106

Impermeable surfaces increase surface runoff, reducing lag time and so increasing the risk of flash flooding

Question 107

Why are small basins vulnerable to water surplus?

Answer 107

- especially in semi-arid and arid regions - These regions suffer from flash flooding due to very short lag times, which can be hazardous.

Question 108

Methods to mitigate and adapt to flood risk (3)

Answer 108

- afforestation of upland areas to reduce rapid surface run off - restricting construction on floodplains to reduce potential economic and social losses - establishing temporary extra floodplains in the event of extreme weather (e.g. football pitches or parks next to rivers)

Question 109

Direct impacts of climate change on the hydrological cycle (3)

Answer 109

▪ If land and sea surface temperatures continue to rise, the period between ENSO cycles could decrease. ▪ Increasing average global temperatures would increase rates of evaporation, which could lead to potential droughts and increasing water scarcity. ▪ for some locations, a rise in average temperatures will lead to more convectional rainfall and enhanced tropical cyclone or depression intensity

Question 110

How will climate change affect inputs, stores, and outputs of the hydrological cycle?

Answer 110

Climate Change will reduce inputs, reduce stores but may increase outputs within the hydrological cycle:

Question 111

Examples of how climate change affects water cycle inputs, stores, and outputs (6)

Answer 111

➔ Less precipitation ➔ Less water available in stores ➔ Reduced size of snow and glacier mass ➔ Water Table drops (height/ capacity of groundwater store) and Aquifer stores deplete ➔ High rates of evaporation ➔ More frequent cyclones and monsoons

Question 112

Why is water distributed unevenly?

Answer 112

- Water is spatially distributed unevenly across the globe. - 66% of the world’s population live in areas which only have access to 25% of the world’s annual rainfall.

Question 113

Reasons for an increase in demand for water (3)

Answer 113

● Population growth - generally more people = more water needed. ● Growing middle class population as countries develop and industrialise, therefore increasing lifestyle and domestic demand. ● Economic growth means industrial demand may also increase.

Question 114

Reasons why supply of water cannot meet demand (3)

Answer 114

● Aquifers and deep-water wells are being dug, especially for water-intensive agriculture. ● Water tables (groundwater storage) are dropping as a result. ● Water is being extracted at a faster rate than the soil is able to recharge.

Question 115

Physical causes of water insecurity (3)

Answer 115

- Precipitation varies across different climates: mid-latitude areas generally receive the most rainfall. - Topography is also significant because areas with high relief generally get more precipitation and surface runoff is greater for more inclined planes, so channel flow tends to be larger and so water can be easily stored by dams and reservoirs. - Geology also determines water security; permeable rocks can be infiltrated, and water can be easily stored underground.

Question 116

Human reasons for a fall in freshwater supply (3)

Answer 116

- pollution - industrial activity (especially in developing countries with slack environmental laws) and population pressure (lack of treatment of sewage) are reducing accessibility to clean freshwater. - saltwater encroachment due to over extraction and rising sea levels (Climate Change) is further reducing freshwater stores

Question 117

Why might the price of water increase?

Answer 117

As a result of a limited supply, the price of clean water has increased in certain regions, and may increase globally in the future.

Question 118

Why is water important economically?

Answer 118

- Water is very important in economic productivity, crop yield and manufacturing capacity. - Fields and grazing lands are dependent on rainwater - aquaculture (fish farming) has been on the rise as wild fish supplies have diminished - Over 20% of all extracted water is used in industries and for energy production

Question 119

Solutions to water insecurity that focus on reducing water consumption (2)

Answer 119

● Many farmers focus on storing rainwater, to use for irrigation and greywater purposes. ● There has been an increase in HEP and the generation of energy without the consumption of freshwater

Question 120

Hard-engineering solutions to water insecurity (3)

Answer 120

- mega dams - desalination plants - water transfer schemes

Question 121

Advantages of mega dams (3)

Answer 121

- Can provide a large volume of water - Can generate HEP - Reduces demand for groundwater

Question 122

Disadvantages of mega dams (4)

Answer 122

- Floods land - Expensive - Countries/areas downstream suffer from lack of water - Water is stored on surface so gets evaporated quickly

Question 123

Advantages of desalination plants (2)

Answer 123

- Can provide a large volume of clean water - Reduces demand for groundwater

Question 124

Disadvantages of desalination plants (4)

Answer 124

- Energy intensive - Releases lots of CO2 - Produces large amounts of brine as waste - Expensive to build and maintain

Question 125

Advantages of water transfer schemes (2)

Answer 125

- Can provide water for areas that lack water and arid areas - Water can become a valuable resource for countries otherwise poor and undeveloped

Question 126

Disadvantages of water transfer schemes (4)

Answer 126

- Can dry up source areas - Expensive - Lots of water evaporated - People relocated to construct

Question 127

What is the Water Poverty Index (WPI)?

Answer 127

The WPI is an index used to measure localised water stress, for the use of national governments to improve provisions.

Question 128

5 components that the WPI focuses on

Answer 128

▪ Water resources – the availability and quality of water ▪ Access to water – the distance from safe water for drinking, cooking, cleaning and industries ▪ Handling capacity – management, infrastructure and income ▪ Use of water – for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes ▪ Environmental indicators – ability to sustain nature and ecosystems

Question 129

How is the WPI scored?

Answer 129

Each component is scored out of 20, giving a total score between 0 and 100 (100 meaning no water stress, 0 meaning water stress and deficits constantly).

Question 130

Which country has the highest WPI?

Answer 130

Finland (with a score of 78)

Question 131

Which country has the lowest WPI?

Answer 131

Haiti has the lowest score of 35

Question 132

ways to manage water sustainably (5)

Answer 132

● Sprinklers are by automated spray technology or advanced irrigation systems which are more efficient. ● Recycling city wastewater is a relatively cheap method of conserving freshwater supplies, especially in areas of extremely high demand. ‘Grey water’ doesn’t need to be cleaned as much to meet drinking standards ● GM crops are being developed, many are tolerant of dry and saline conditions ● Restoration of damaged lakes, rivers and wetlands to increase natural water storage ● Restoring meanders & replanting vegetation

Question 133

Ways to conserve water domestically (4)

Answer 133

- installing smart metres - charging more for water during times where there is a lack of water supply - using eco-kettles - taking a shower instead of a bath

Question 134

What is Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)?

Answer 134

- The IWRM approach emphasises the river basin as the logical geographic unit for strategic planning. - The basin is treated holistically to protect environment and ensure fair distribution

Question 135

Features of IWRM (7)

Answer 135

▪ Freedom from corruption ▪ Environmental protection of all supplies and ecosystems ▪ Food and water security for poorer people ▪ Effective dialogue between people ▪ Decentralised approach ▪ Cash recovery of schemes through effective pricing ▪ Effective regulation and planning use

Question 136

Describe the IWRM approach to groundwater management

Answer 136

-Aquifer storage and reuse -Groundwater quality and quantity modelling

Question 137

Describe the IWRM approach to waterway management

Answer 137

-River rehabilitation -Sustainable water allocation -Environmental flows

Question 138

Describe the IWRM approach to integrated urban water management

Answer 138

- Water treatment technology - Water sensitive urban design - Water harvesting and reuse

Question 139

Describe the IWRM approach to monitoring technology

Answer 139

- Sensor technologies - Real time wireless monitoring and controlling

Question 140

What are the Helsinki Rules?

Answer 140

Under the Helsinki Rules there is general agreement that international treaties must include concepts such as ‘equitable use’ and ‘equitable shares’, and be applied to whole drainage basins, not single countries.

Question 141

Criteria considered for water sharing (6)

Answer 141

- Natural factors → rainfall amounts, discharge, share of drainage basin - Social and economic needs → population size, welfare of people, development plans - Downstream impacts → restructuring flow, water tables, pollution - Dependency → availability of alternative sources - Prior use → the tricky question of existing historic rights and potential future use - Efficiency → avoiding waste and mismanagement

Question 142

Describe the UNECE water convention

Answer 142

- UN Economic Commission for Europe Water Convention - aims to protect and ensure the quality and sustainable use of transboundary water resources

Question 143

What does the UNECE Water Convention promote?

Answer 143

The UNECE Water Convention promotes joint management and conservation of shared freshwater ecosystems in Europe and neighbouring areas.

Question 144

What does the UN Water Courses Convention do?

Answer 144

The UN Water Courses Convention offers guidelines on the protection and use of transboundary rivers.

Question 145

What does the WWF believe about water treaties?

Answer 145

the WWF says that most agreements lack appropriate enforcement and monitoring.

Question 146

Define eutrophocation

Answer 146

- when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients, increasing the amount of plant and algae growth to estuaries and coastal waters - this can hinder growth underneath due to reduced access to sunlight