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BI158 > Chapter 26- Progeny > Flashcards

Chapter 26- Progeny Flashcards

1
Q

Phylogeny

A

the evolutionary history of a species or group of species

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2
Q

Systematics

A

a discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships

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3
Q

Taxonomy

A

the discipline of naming and classifying organisms

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4
Q

Common names (2)

A

convey meaning in casual usage

Can refer to more than one species

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5
Q

Latin scientific name origin

A

Instituted by Carolus Linnaeus

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6
Q

Latin scientific name parts (3)

A

two-part format of the scientific name

The first part is the genus of the species

The second part is the specific epithet, which is unique to each species in a genus

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7
Q

Why is the latin scientific name used?

A

Avoids ambiguity

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8
Q

What is the linnaean system? (2)

A

Species > genus > family > order > Class > phylum > kingdom > domain

Does not reflect evolutionary history

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9
Q

What is taxon? (2)

A

named taxonomic unit

Taxa broader than genus isn’t italicized

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10
Q

Examples of taxon (2)

A

taxon of leopard at the genus level is Panthera

Mammalia is a taxon at the class level of mammals

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11
Q

What is a phylogenic tree? (2)

A

the evolutionary history of a group of organisms using a branching diagram

Matches how taxonomists grouped organisms

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12
Q

What does a phylogenic tree represent?

A

Represents a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships

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13
Q

Why do some species belong in the same genus even though they aren’t closely related?

A

Due to evolution, a key feature is lost that was once shared with the genus

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14
Q

What is an issue of a phylogenic tree?

A

it tells nothing about the group’s evolutionary relationships with anotherW

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15
Q

What is used to create accurate phylogenic trees?

A

DNA and new evidence

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16
Q

How do systematists create a classification system?

A

recognizing only groups that include a common ancestor and all its descendants

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17
Q

What are branch points?

A

divergence of two evolutionary lineages from a common ancestor

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18
Q

What is a sister taxa?

A

groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor

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19
Q

What does rooted mean?

A

a branch point represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree

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20
Q

What is a basal taxon?

A

a lineage that diverges early in the history of a group

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21
Q

Wha is polytomy? (2)

A

a branch point from which more than two descendant groups emerge

Evolutionary relationships among the taxa are not yet clear

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22
Q

What are the three key points of a phylogenetic tree?

A

Show patterns of descent, not phenotypic similarity

The sequence of branching does not indicate the actual age of a species

Should not assume that a taxon on a phylogenetic tree evolved from the taxon next to it

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23
Q

What are reservoirs?

A

close relatives of a specific species possessing beneficial alleles that can be transferred and cross breed

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24
Q

How is phylogeny applied? (2)

A

Provides important info about similar characteristics in closely related species

Identifies species by analyzing the relatedness of DNA sequences from different organisms

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25
Q

How is phylogeny inferred? (2)

A

Must gather info about morphology, genes, and biochemistry of relevant organisms

Focus on features that result from common ancestry- reflects evolutionary relationships

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26
Q

What are homologies?

A

phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry

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27
Q

What increases the likely hood of species being closely related?

A

similar morphologies or similar DNA sequences

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28
Q

What is an analogy?

A

similarity between organisms due to convergent evolution

29
Q

What causes analogies?

A

Occurs when environmental pressures and natural selection produce similar adaptations in organisms from different evolutionary lineages

30
Q

What are homoplasies?

A

analogous structures that arose independently

31
Q

How are homologies and analogies distinguished? (4)

A

Corroborative similarities

Fossil evidence

Complexity of characters
The more similarities in a complex structure, the more likely they share a common ancestor

Comparison of gene level
If two characters share the same sequence of nucleotides, the genes are homologous

32
Q

Example of homology and analogy

A

Bats and birds
Forelimbs are homologous
Wings are analogous

33
Q

How is DNA compared between similar species?

A

Closely related species differ bases at a few sites

34
Q

How is DNA compared in distantly related species? (2)

A

Similar sequences can have a different origin

Those distantly related differ and can have different lengths

35
Q

How are computers used to compare DNA?

A

align this to compare it more easily

They can also identify molecular homoplasies

36
Q

What is cladistics?

A

Systematics where common ancestry is the primary criterion used to classify organisms

37
Q

What are clades?

A

a group that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants

38
Q

What is monophyletic? (2)

A

consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants

Taxon is equivalent to a clade

39
Q

What is paraphyletic?

A

consists of an ancestral species and some of its descendants

40
Q

What is polyphyletic? (2)

A

distantly related species but does not include their most common ancestor

Avoided by biologists, and reclassifies groups if it is polyphyletic

41
Q

What is a shared ancestral character, and an example?

A

a character that originates in an ancestor of the taxon

Ex- backbones in mammals

42
Q

What is a shared derived character, and an example?

A

an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade, not found in their ancestors

Ex- hair in mammals

43
Q

What is an outgroup?

A

species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying (ingroup)

44
Q

What are outgroups based on, and what is it used for?

A

Based on evidence from morphology, paleontology, embryonic development, and gene sequences

Used to compare ingroup and outgroup to differentiate between shared derived and shared ancestral characteristics

45
Q

What are branch lengths?

A

the longer the branch lengths, the more genetic changes have occurred

46
Q

What is maximum parsimony? (3)

A

first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts

Requires the fewest evolutionary events

Fewest base changes

47
Q

What is maximum likelihood?

A

tree most likely to have produced a given set of DNA data, based on certain probability rules about how DNA sequences change over time

48
Q

What is phylogenetic bracketing?

A

predicting features shared by two groups of closely related organisms are present in their common ancestor and all of its descendants unless independent data indicate otherwise

49
Q

How are genes used to study evolution? (4)

A

Genes evolve at different rates

Duplication of genes provides more opportunities for evolutionary changes

Duplicated genes can be traced to a common ancestor

Nucleic acids and other molecules are used to compare organisms’ evolution

50
Q

How is rRNA used to study evolution?

A

DNA for rRNA changes slowly

Useful for investigating relationships from a long time ago

51
Q

How is mitochondrial DNA used to study evolution?

A

Mitochondrial DNA evolves rapidly

Used to capture recent events

52
Q

What are gene families?

A

groups of related genes within an organism’s genome

53
Q

What are orthologous genes? (3)

A

homology is the result of a speciation event and hence occurs between genes found in different species

Single copy in the genome

Diverges in separate gene pools

54
Q

What are paralogous genes? (3)

A

homology results from gene duplication

Multiple copies of these genes have diverged from one another within a species

Diverges within a species

55
Q

What is genome evolution? (3)

A

Lineages that diverged long ago often share many orthologous genes

The number of genes a species has doesn’t increase through duplication at the same rate as phenotypic complexity

One gene can code for multiple proteins

56
Q

Molecular clock

A

approach or measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates

57
Q

What is molecular clock used for? (2)

A

Used to study prior to fossil record

The older it is, he higher the degree of uncertainty
Using multiple genes can improve estimates

58
Q

Orthologous genes for molecular clocks

A

nucleotide substitutions are assumed to be proportional to the time since they last shared a common ancestor

59
Q

Paralogous genes for molecular clocks

A

nucleotide substitutions are proportional to the time since the genes became duplicated

60
Q

Neutral mutations and molecular clocks (2)

A

Neutral mutations occur more quickly

Molecular change is regular

61
Q

Irregular burst in molecular clocks (2)

A

cause changes in important functions

Can also result from natural selection

62
Q

First taxonomy classification

A

Plants and animals

63
Q

First five kingdoms

A

Monera (prokaryotes), Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

64
Q

What are the current domains?

A

Domain Bacteria
Prokaryotes

Domain archaea
Prokaryotic organisms that inhabit a wide variety of environments

Domain eukarya
Groups of single-celled organisms and multicellular organisms

65
Q

Why is Kingdom Monera not used?

A

because it has members in two different domains

66
Q

Why isn’t Kingdom Protista used?

A

because it includes members related to plants and fungi rather than other protists

67
Q

What is the first split?

A

when bacteria diverged from other organisms

68
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer, and what does it lead to?

A

genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms such as the exchange of transposable elements and plasmids, viral infections, and fusion of organisms

This can lead to inconsistent results of trees built using different genes

BI158 (16 decks)

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