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Pysch > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

1
Q

Storage

A

As a result of encoding info is stored within memory system

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2
Q

Define memory

A

Process of recalling/retaining info after the original thing/object is no longer present

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3
Q

Encoding

A

Info converted into code that can be stored in memory

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4
Q

After Henry molaisons surgery what was impaired

A

Alleiviate some seizures

Unable to form new memories

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5
Q

Multi store model

A

Atkinson and shiffrin 1968

Linear model

Three storages

1)sensory memory attention limited capacity 0.5sec duration

2)short term memory unattended info is lost hypocampus encodes acoustically 7-9 item capacity 18-30 secs needed to be tested immediately

3)long term memory some info may be lost hypocampus encodes semantically unlimited duration and capacity

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6
Q

What happened to Henry molaison

A

Remove a part of his brain - part of hypocampus !amyglada and rhinal cortex in order to remove his seizures after a bike accident

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7
Q

Cons

A

External validation -cannot generalise

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8
Q

Retrieval

A

Recovering stored info from memory system

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9
Q

What was not implied after Henry’s surgery

A

Perception or intellect

Scored higher on some iq tests after

Long term memory

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10
Q

Capacity of stm -jacobs

A

Jacobs recruited 443 students from north London

Gave sequence of words and letters and asked to recall them in correct order

Every time decal,ed correct,y added a new. Umber u tile no longer could remember

7.3 letters 9.3 words

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11
Q

Three main processes in memory

A

encoding

2)storage

3)retrieval

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12
Q

Henry surgery summary

A

Went through surgery recover epilepsy after he suffered from anterograde and retrograde amnesia he was able to remember memories before surgery long term but could not form new memories after surgery. Suggests his shirt term memkery was damaged after the operation and he could not form new memories. Supports men as it shows ltm and stm are sep stores

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13
Q

Sensory register

A

Info from senses enters the sensory register which is modality specific.not one sense registered

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14
Q

KF

A

doesn’t support only one stm storage

He suffered

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15
Q

Research support for capacity

A

Miller 1957

Experiment how many numbers we can recall for telephones

STM capacity for 7 items but struggle for 9

Miller found that “bits” of information can be grouped together into “chunk

Stm holds more info in chunks but loses accurate

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16
Q

Capacity of short term memory

A

Miller and jacobs

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17
Q

Duration of stm

A

Peterson and Peterson

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18
Q

Evidence for duration of ltm

A

Bahrick

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19
Q

Encoding for ltm and stm evidence

A

Baddely

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20
Q

What baddely found

A

Found that info in the stm encodes acoustically

Found that ltm encodes semantically

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21
Q

What bahrick found

A

Found that the duration of ltm seems unlimited

Participants rec names and faces of classmates after 50 yrs

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22
Q

What happened to cw

A

Viral infection damaged his hippocampus which helps consolidate stm and ltm

Clive count remember anything he learnt after 20 secs

Ltm before infection in tact

Shows sep stores

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23
Q

What is msm

A

When info is coded according to sound and is coding system used by stm

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24
Q

Rehearsal loop

A

The way in which sensory memory encodes which is sense specific

And refers to sensory memory

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25
Q

Accoustic

A

When info is encoded by the memory store according to its meaning refers to ltm coding

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26
Q

Semantic

A

The earliest model of memory by Atkinson and shifring

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27
Q

Duration

A

Length of the time the info lasts

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28
Q

Capacity

A

How much info stored

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29
Q

Retrieval

A

Process of retaining the info we have encoded

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30
Q

Acoustic stm and semantic ltm

A

Baddely

Tend to mix words we findsimilar when using stm

Asked to recall similar sound word and immediately recalled less words

Stm encodes acoustically

Same with ltm after 30 mims recall similar meaning words

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31
Q

What bahrick did

A

Recruited 392 graduates shown pics of high skl yearbook and then given a group of names an match 90% ab,e to match after 14 yrs and 60% after 47 yrs

Ltm duration. At least 47 yrs

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32
Q

What happened at 18 seconds of trigram research

A

Stm

90% was recalled

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33
Q

Brown Peterson technique

A

Peterson and Peterson

24 make fema,e uni psych students

Trigram syllables

The given three numbers asked to remember backwards to prevent move to ltm

Asked to stop recalling at diff intervals ( 3,6,9,15,18)

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34
Q

What did miller find

A

Bits of info can be grouped together into chunks as stm can hold more info in chunks but loses accuracy

We recall sound in stm eg 7379 sounds as one item

Recall 11 individual numbers but recall 9 items

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35
Q

Validity’s of research

A

External

Internal

Reliability

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36
Q

External validity

A

Generalised validity

Target population Eg students in London

Take a sample from this place

More people to rep the students in London of all ages

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37
Q

Ecological validity

A

Relates to the task

Eg list of numbers or words doesn’t actually represent memory

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38
Q

Population validity

A

Higher than target population

Eg world

Rest of population

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39
Q

Internal validity

A

What you are measuring

Causation

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40
Q

Reliability

A

Replication

High levels of controls

Standardisation

Get same results

Increases reliabiiity

Increases validity

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41
Q

Everything about sensory memory

A

Large only one sense capacity

0.5 sec duration

Raw coding

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42
Q

Everything short term memory

A

7-9 items

18-30 secs

Acoustic encoded

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43
Q

Long term everything

A

Unlimited

Lifetime

Semantically

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44
Q

How stm was investigated

A

Peterson and Peterson 1959

Gathered 24 male and female uni students gave trigrams to remember three letters three numbers had to remember the three numbers backwards to prevent going to ltm.stopped rehearsing them at intervals from 3-18 seconds and to recall these trigrams. This tested stm

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45
Q

Who made the working memory model

A

Baddely and hitch

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46
Q

Working memory model

A

4 component short term memory system

proposed in the 1970s

Msm too simplistic

Over emphasis on the role of rehearsal for learning

Baddely and hitch set about trying to understand stm as a complex and active working memory

1)control executive
2)phonological loop
3)vistas spaciak sketch pad
4)ltm

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47
Q

Main component of wmm

A

Central executive

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48
Q

Central executive

A

Goss if wmm

Control attention smd directs information to the two systems

Phonological loop and visual spatial sketch psd

Process indormstion from any snensory modality

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49
Q

Phonological loop

A

Temporarily storage system for verbal info and has two components

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50
Q

Two components of phonological loop

A

Thearticulatorycontrolprocess:whichisthe inner voice. This store allows for subvocal repetition of acoustic information.

• The phonological store: The inner ear. It is a temporary storage space for coding Acoustic and information which has limited capacity

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51
Q

Visual spatial sketch pad

A

It is a temporary storage system for visual and spatial information, such as remembering shapes and colours, or the location or speed of objects in space. It has two components:

• Theinnerscribe:storesinformationabout form and colour.

• Thevisualcache:whichdealswithspatialand movement information. It also rehearses information in the visual cache and transfers information to the central executive.

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52
Q

Episodic buffer

A

Theepisodicbufferwasaddedtothemodel later.

• Theepisodicbufferbindsandintegrates information from all the components and passes the information to the LTM.

• It therefore codes both visual and acoustic information. However, it has a limited capacity.

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53
Q

Central Executive function capacity and coding

A

Control centre of the WMM. It supervises function and controls the slave system

Unlimited

Any sensory modality
Controls and directs info to other stores
Makes decisions
Process the info
Shifts attention to other tasks
Focuses on specific tasks
Inhibits irrelevant info

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54
Q

Phonological Loop

Function capacity coding

A

Temporary storage system for verbal information, held in speech-based form

limited

Acoustic information

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55
Q

VSP function capacity coding

A

Temporary storage system for visual and spatial information

Limited

Visual and spatial information

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56
Q

Evaluation for wmm

A

1)case study to support two storages in stm (kf)
2)evaluate case studies eg.lack of general validity
3)research lab studies eg.dual task
4)limitation of lab study eg.lack of ecological validity
5) central executive limitation

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57
Q

Kf and wmm

A

Supports two stores in stm
One encodes visually and one accoustically
Bike accident damages stm
Kf coukd not recall what was read t him
He was able to recall info he read himself

This shows that KF phonological loop was damaged, but the visual spatial store wasnot. ThissupportstwodifferentencodingstoresinSTM.

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58
Q

Limitations of case studies

A

Low external validity
Case studies in memory based on uniquei dividuals who has spec brain injuries

For example, although KF had most of his hippocampus damaged, but we don’t know if other surrounding areas were also affected. This is a problem for the external validity of the findings as we don’t know if these other areas are the cause of his lost of verbal memory. Therefore, findings from case studies cannot be generalised to how memory works in all humans or in other people with brain injury.

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59
Q

Dual task

A

Drawing a picture while remembering a series of numbers
Drawing task in visual cache
Numbers processed in phonological loop
Go to different storages therefore can do at same time
Verbal reasoning task m both storages so rehearsing number and doing verbal reasoning cannot happen
Used to prove two seperste components in stm
One for sound and one for vision

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60
Q

Limitation of wmm

A

The WMM only explains STM but it fails to explain how information moves from STM to LTM.
• It also ignores to explain how memories are stored in the LTM. For example, how procedural memories are stored and where.

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61
Q

Ce criticism

A

Some psychologists claim that the EC explanation is too vague.
there are only modest correlations between people on different executive functions, and since some people can lose some executive functions, such focus attention but keep others such as inhibition, it’s highly unlikely that the CE is one unitary construct.
Without knowing how the CE is broken down, it’s very difficult to come up with hypotheses to test the model further, and to know how these subsections relate to each other and the other parts of the model. Take verbal rehearsal for example. Does the CE initiate this, monitor it, maintain it? Or is it purely a function of the phonological loop?

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62
Q
  1. Select one study of the working memory model and outline what the participants were required to do. (2 marks)
A

One study would be the dual task study where participants were asked to draw an image whilst rehearsing a series of numbers.

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63
Q

types of long term memory

A

episodic
semantic
procedural

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64
Q

declarative explicit

A

words
episodic
semantic

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65
Q

non declarative

A

implicit
no words
procedural

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66
Q

semantic memory

A

part of the long term memory responsible for storing information about the world. this includes knowledge about the meaning of words as well as general knowledge

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67
Q

semantic memory definition

A

memory of relationships and how things fit together
it includes the memory that you have brothers or sisters where things are located and what they do

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68
Q

episodic memory

A

part of the long term memory responsible for storing information about events that we have experienced
conscious thought and is declarative
eg.1st day of ski

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69
Q

what is the strength of episodic memory determined by

A

strength of the emotions experienced when they are coded

70
Q

what is episodic memory associated

A

hippocampus
prefrontal cortex
explicit

71
Q

procedural memory

A

memory on how we do things
eg.tying shoelaces
retain procedural memories even after you have forgotten being taught to do them
implicit
difficult to explain words to someone else
repetition and practice

72
Q

what is procedural memory associated with

A

cerebellum and motor cortex

73
Q

semantic time referencing

A

not dependent on time
memories about the event that happened

74
Q

semantic spatial referencing

A

input in a fragment way
piece together factual information that has been learnt at different times

75
Q

semantic retrieval

A

possible without contextual cues
does not seem dependant on context in which info was learned

76
Q

semantic forgetting

A

memory trace more robust and less susceptible to transformation

77
Q

identify and explain one difference between episodic and procedural memory (3 AMRKS)

A

procedural memory is implicit whereas episodic is explicit.

78
Q

decay and displacement theory

A

forgetting in sum

79
Q

interference theory and retrieval failure

A

forgetting in ltm

80
Q

trace decay theory of forgetting

A

memories leave a trace in the brain
psychical/chemical change in the nervous sytstem
forgetting is a result to automatic decay
focuses on time and limited duration of stm
15-30 sec unless rehearsed

81
Q

evaluation of decay theory

A

more or less impossible to test it.
here is a blank period of time between presentation of material and recall.
prevent rehearsal by introducing a distracter task, it results in interference.​

82
Q

displacement from stm

A

When STM is ‘full’, new information displaces or ‘pushes out’ old information and takes its place. The old information which is displaced is forgotten in STM.​
suggested by Miller to be 7+/- 2 items, STM can only hold small amounts of information.​

​

83
Q

evaluation for displacement theory

A

upport for the view that displacement was responsible for the loss of information from short-term memory came from studies using the ‘free-recall’ method. (​

84
Q

free call method

A

articipants listen to a list of words read out at steady rate, usually two seconds per word; they are then asked to recall as many of words as possible. They are free to recall the words in any order, hence the term ‘free recall’.​

85
Q

free call findings

A

People recall the first words given and the last but they forget the ones in the middle. Good recall of items at the beginning of the list is referred to as the primacy effect and good recall if items at the end of the list are referred to as the recency effect. The displacement theory of forgetting from short-term memory can explain the recency effect quite easily. The last few words that were presented in the list have not yet been displaced from short-term memory and so are available for recall.​

​

The primacy effect can be explained using Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) multi-store model which proposes that information is transferred into long-term memory by means of rehearsal.​

​

The first words in the list are rehearsed more frequently so you don’t forget them. However, the words in the middle are pushed away by the new words. This way they are forgotten. ​

86
Q

interference theory definition

A

when info we have learnt previously is interfering with info we learn in the future vice versa
peices of info disrupts with one another
suggest info in ltm may get confused or combined during the encoding and distorts and disrupts memories

87
Q

two types of interference

A

1)Proactive interference
2)retroactive interference

88
Q

proactive interference

A

when old tasks interfere with the new task
when what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning
can’t remember the names of your new students because the names of your old students interfere with the new ones

89
Q

retroactive interference

A

new memories interfere with old memories
forger the names of your old students
because the new students name interfere with old

90
Q

chandler 1989

A

stated that students who study similar subjects at the dame time often experience interference
for example spansiha sn French are quite similar

more likely to occur when memories are similar

91
Q

chandler findings

A

The recall of the control group was more accurate than that of the experimental group.​

This suggests that learning items in the second list interfered with participants’ ability to recall the list. This is an example of retroactive interference.​

92
Q

research supporting interference
postman 1960

A

lab experiment
experimental group and control group
experimental group - two lists
same cat jelly book but other words after this
only had to recall the first list in both conditions
control group- learn only first list

93
Q

findings of postman 1960

A

hose participants who had 2 lists had lower recall than those who only had one list.​

Therefore, the findings show that forgetting occurs when information is similar because the words interfere with each other and create confusion. ​

94
Q

retrieval failure.

A

1)esp - encoding specificity principle
2)context dependent
3)state dependent

95
Q

retrieval failure

A

form of forgetting
occurs when we don’t have the necessary eyes to access memory
the memory available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is presented

96
Q

what is a cue

A

trigger of information that allows us to access a memory
meaningful of may be indirectly linked by being encoded at the tie off learning

97
Q

esp

A

This principle states the memory is most effective when information that was present at the time of coding is also present at the time of retrieval. ​

98
Q

contextual cues

A

hey refer to elements in the environment that act as cues when we are learning. For example, the room where you are learning information.​

99
Q

state cues

A

They refer to psychological or mental elements that act as cues when we are learning. For example, your mood at the moment you are learning. ​

100
Q

why we forget

A

Context dependent failure ​

State dependent failure​

101
Q

golden and badly sim

A

investigate the effect of contextual cues on recall

102
Q

group 1 in golden and badly

A

control group learning and recalling on land

103
Q

group 2 in golden and badly

A

experimental learning and recalling land and under water

104
Q

group 3 in golden and baddley

A

experimental group learning and recalling under water

105
Q

group 4 in baddely and godden

A

leanring underwater and recalling on land

106
Q

evaluation point for goden and baddely

A

baddeley and Godden (1975) conducted research that indicates the importance of setting for retrieval. ​

107
Q

evidence for golden and badly

A

addeley asked deep-sea divers to memorise a list of words. There were 2 conditions where participants learned and retrieve the list of words in the same environment (condition 1 learned on land and retrieved on land; condition 2 learned underwater and retrieved underwater). There were also another 2 conditions where participants learned and retrieved in different environments (condition 1 learned underwater and retrieved on land; condition 2 learned on land and retrieved underwater). They found that those who had recalled in the same environment (context), they recalled 60% more words than those recalling in a different environment. ​

108
Q

explanation of golden and badly

A

his suggests that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned. ​

109
Q

link for golden and badly

A

herefore, forgetting is due to lack of contextual cues when we are trying to retrieve information that was learnt in a different environment. This gives credibility to the retrieval failure theory.​

110
Q

competing paragraph for golden and badly

A

P: Baddeley did not control many variables. ​

E: The divers took part in the experiment at different times of the day and at different diving locations. ​

E: This suggests that each diver would have experienced other contextual cues, which may have affected their memory.​

L: Therefore, we are unable to conclude whether the results of Godden and Baddeley’s research are because of the on land/underwater contextual cues, or another contextual cue provided by the different time of day or diving location. This decreases the validity of the claim that learning and retrieval have to be in the same place to reduce forgetting. ​

111
Q

state deepdnednt forgetting research

A

cater and cassardy 1998
tested the effect of a drug on recalll
anti histamine
they gave participants s lousy of wolfed
1)learn on drug recall when on it
2)learn on grudge recall not on it
3)learn not on drug recall when. on it
4)learnt not on drug recall when not on it

112
Q

findings of cater and cassardy 1998

A

In the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall, performance on the memory test was significantly worse. ​

Therefore, when the mental cues are absent there is more forgetting.​

113
Q

evaluation of Peter and cassardy

A

p: There is research support for the effect of state-dependent retrieval failure.​

E: A study by Goodwin et al. investigated the effect of alcohol on state-dependent retrieval. They asked male volunteers to remember lists of words when they were either drunk or sober. The participants were then asked to recall the words 24 hours later, in either a drunk or sober state. The results showed that the recall was better when they were in the same mental state when they learned the words and when they recalled them. ​

E: This shows that forgetting is affected by the mental state when information is encoded and retrieved. ​

L: The findings on the effect of the mental state on forgetting from Goodwin are similar to Carter & Cassady’s. This is a strength as this increases the reliability of the state dependent as a type of forgetting. ​

​

114
Q

factors for wrong eye witness tesitomeny

A

1)misleading information- leading questions , post event discussions
2)anxiety

115
Q

definition of eye witness testimony

A

evidence given in court ot police invetigation by someone witnessed a crime or accident

116
Q

misleading informartion definition

A

incorrect information given to an eye witness usually after the event
it can take many forms such as leading questions and post event discussions between co witness or other people

117
Q

leading question deifintiinsn

A

question which because of the way it is phrased dsuggests a certsin answer

eg. was the knife in his left hand? leads a person to think thats wbere the knife was

118
Q

post event discussions

A

occurs when more than one witness to event
witnesses may discuss what they have seen with co witnesses or with other people
may influence the accuracy of each eitnesses recall of the event

119
Q

key factor sleading for ron cotton to be convicted

A

-false alibi
-dark so she couldnt see
-anxious , tramasurised not in rightbstate pf mind
-cotton and bobby poole looked alike
-evidence of foam found maybe from cottons shoe
-lives nearby fits with story
-in line up so more confident she was right

120
Q

what loftus and palmer investigated

A

leading questions

121
Q

aim of loftus and palmer

A

to invcestigare effect of leading questions on eyewitness testimony

122
Q

method of loftus and palmer

A

150 american students
5 groups of 9

123
Q

deign of loftus and palmer

A

independent measure
all ppt watched vid of vrash and then asked spevidic questions about speed of cars

manipulated vers of the questions
bumbped, contacted,hit,collided,smashed

124
Q

findings of loftus and palmer

A

They found that the estimated speed was affected by the verb used. ​

For example, participants who were given the verb ͚smashed͛ reported an average speed of 40.5 mph, whereas participants who were given the word ͚contacted͛ reported an average speed of 31.8 mph, an overall difference of 8.7 mph.​

125
Q

concluioons of loftus and palmer

A

The results show clearly that the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading questions and that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgements. ​

126
Q

Loftus and palmer 2 aim

A

To investigate further how leading questions can affect eyewitness testimony.​

127
Q

loftus and palmer 2 procedure

A

150 participants divided into 3 groups. They watched the video of a car accident and then they were given a questionnaire.​

128
Q

loftus and palmer 2 - what were the three groups asked

A

Group 1 was asked how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other. ​

Group 2 was asked How fast were the cars going when they hit each other. ​

Group 3: were not asked about the speed of the vehicles.​

129
Q

what happened a week after the loftus and palmer 2 investigation

A

the participants returned and were asked a series of questions about the accident. ​

The critical question was: ͞Did you see any broken glass͍͟ There was no broken glass in the video clip. ​

130
Q

findings of loftus and palmer 2

A

Results͗ 32% of the participants who were previously questioned using the verb smashed reported seeing broken glass.​

14% of the participants who were previously questioned using the verb hit reported seeing broken glass. ​

​

12% of the control group reported seeing broken glass. ​

131
Q

why do leading questions affect eye witness testimony

A

-no effect on the participant’s memory but influences how they decide to answer. ​
- using the word smashed, this encourages them to choose a higher speed estimate. This is the response bias explanation.​

132
Q

The substitution explanation to why leading questions affect ewt

A

wording of a leading questions changes the participant’s memory. This was shown in the second experiment (Loftus and Palmer 1974) because participants who originally heard smashed were later more likely to report seeing broken glass (there was none) than those who heard hit. This critical verb altered their memory of the incident. ​

133
Q

evaluation of loftus and palmer

A

Lack of ecological validity​

Lack of population validity​

High reliability​

134
Q

how loftus and palmer lacks ecological validity

A

watched a video of a car crash and witnessed the events unfold from start to finish. In everyday reports of car accidents, witnesses rarely see the whole event as they are either involved in the event directly or see a small part of the event happening in their peripheral vision.​

E: This suggests that their results do not reflect everyday car accidents and we are unable to conclude if eyewitness to real accidents who may have a stronger emotional connection to the event, would be affected by leading information or not. ​

L: This is a limitation because misleading information may not be a factor affecting EWT as proposed by Loftus and Palmer. ​

135
Q

lack of population validity

A
136
Q

loftus and palmer high reliability

A
137
Q

gabber et al 2003 aim

A

: To investigate the effect of post-event discussion on the accuracy of EWT.​

138
Q

gabber et al 2003 method

A

60 students from the University of Aberdeen and 60 older adults from the local community.​
Participants saw a video. Some of them were tested individually and others in pairs.​

The participants tested in pairs were told that they all had watched the same video. However, they saw different perspectives of the same crime and only one person in the pair had actually witnessed the girl stealing a wallet. ​

The participants in pairs discussed the crime together. The control group did not discuss the crime. ​

All participants had to complete a questionnaire testing their memory of the event at the end of the experiment. ​

139
Q

what happened to control group in gabber et al

A

-saw a video individually
-saw girl stealing
-did not discuss crime
-All participants completed a questionnaire at the end to test their memory of the crime​

140
Q

experimental group

A

-saw a video in pairs
-one person in pair saw girl steal
-other did not see
-then. discussed crime
-All participants completed a questionnaire at the end to test their memory of the crime​

141
Q

results of gabber et al

A

71% of the witnesses in the pairs (experimental group) recalled information they had not actually seen and 60% said that the girl was guilty, despite the fact that they had not seen her commit the crime. ​

Conclusion: post event discussions affect the accuracy of EWT.​

142
Q

evaluation of gabber

A

Lack of ecological validity​

Good population validity​

Extraneous variables not controlled could affect the results such as poor memory or conformity. ​lack of internal validity

143
Q

lack of ecological validity in gabber

A

However, like Loftus and Palmer, these witnesses knew they were taking part in an experiment and were more likely to have paid close attention to the details of the video clip. ​

Therefore, these results do not reflect everyday examples of crime, where witnesses may be exposed to less information and more distractions from the crime scene. ​

144
Q

gabber population validity

A

They tested two different populations, university students and older adults and found little difference between these two conditions. ​

This suggests that our memories are affected by post-discussion in all ages. ​

Therefore, her results provide good population validity and allow us to conclude that post-even discussion affects younger and older adults in a similar way.​

​

145
Q

distortion in gabber

A

poor memory, where people assimilate new information into their own accounts of the event and are unable to distinguish between what they have seen and what they have heard. ​

On the other hand, it could be that the distortion occurs due to conformity and the social pressure from the co-witness.​

Therefore, causation cannot be established, and further research may provide a more valid answer. ​

146
Q

Johnson and Scott

A

Research on anxiety and now it affects eye witness testimony

147
Q

Non weapon condition

A

Panne pang heard someone saying something about equipmentfailuve

148
Q

Weapon condition

A

Participants voverheard a heated discussion and me sound of breaking glass and crashing chairs

149
Q

After Johnson and Scott

A

Both groups were then shown 50 photo graphs and asked to identify the person who had left the lap
The participants were informed hat the suspect may or may not be present in the photograph

150
Q

Result of Johnson and Scott

A

Those who had witnessed the man holding the pen correctly identified the target (49%)
Those who had witnessed the man holding the knife, only identified the target 30% of the time.

151
Q

Conclusion of Johnson and Scott

A

The participants who were exposed to the knife had higher levels of anxiety and were more likely to focus their attention on the weapon and not the face of the target, a phenomenon known as the weapon focus effect. The anxiety associated with seeing a knife reduces the accuracy of EWT.

152
Q

YUILLE & CUTSHALL: REAL-LIFE CASE STUDY

A

One person was killed and another seriously injured in a real-life shooting.
21 EWT were interviewed by the police.
4-5 months after the police investigation, Yuille & Cutshall asked those EWT if they wanted to participate in a research.
13 of those EWT accepted to be interviewed by Yuille & Cutshall.

153
Q

Findings of yuille and cutshall

A

They found that all of the 13 EWT were accurate in their eyewitness accounts five months later with very little changes such as the height or age.
The eyewitness avoided responding in a biased way to leading questions and the anxiety experienced at the time of the event had little or no effect on their recall of the event.
Therefore, this contradicts the weapon focus effect and the results of Loftus (1979) and shows that in real-life extreme anxiety does not affect EWT

154
Q

Parker et al

A

However, Parker et al. claim that high anxiety levels seem to affect recall.
E: One problem with lab experiments and real-life studies is that they only compare high and low anxiety levels. The inverted U theory cannot be properly tested unless there is a moderate anxiety group as well.
E: Parker interviewed people who had been affected by the destruction by hurricane Andrew intheUSAin1992.theresearchersdefinedanxietyintermsoftheamountof damage the participants suffered to their homes. The researchers found that there was a link between the level of recall and the amount of damage (anxiety) experienced.
E: This suggests that low levels of anxiety produce low level of accuracy and as the anxiety increases accuracy increases as well up to a certain point where if the anxiety is too high the accuracy of the recall decreases drastically.
E: Therefore, the level of anxiety is what affects the accuracy of EWT.

155
Q

What is the cognitive interview

A

developed in 1985
Fisher et al. (1987) studied police interviews in Florida and found that witnesses were often presented with a series of short, closed questions, which attempted to elicit facts. ​

Furthermore, the police would often ask questions in a sequence that was not synchronised with the events that had taken place. ​

156
Q

gieselman et al 4 principles of cognitive interview CR

A

CR: is when a person mentally recalls the context of the event. For example, a person might recall the time of day, the weather, who they were with, or even their feelings. ​

These details then can act as a trigger, to help the person recall more information. There are clear links here between this and context-dependent and state dependent remembering.​

157
Q

gieselman et al 4 principles of cognitive interview RE

A

Is when a person recalls every detail they can remember, even those that may seem trivial. This is because small pieces of information may lead to key information recall about the crime. This technique is also based on retrieval failure

157
Q

gieselman et al 4 principles of cognitive interview CP

A

s when a person considers the event from someone else’s point of view. For example, they might consider what the offender saw. This also lessens the influence of schema​

158
Q

gieselman et al 4 principles of cognitive interview RO

A

is when a person recalls the events in reverse chronological order. This prevents to form schemas.​

159
Q

what is CR

A

context reisnatwmwnt

160
Q

RE

A

report everything

161
Q

CP

A

changed perspective

162
Q

RO

A

recall in reverse order

163
Q

gieslmann 1985 method

A

89 students watched a video of a simulated crime. ​

Two days later they were interviewed using cognitive interview or standard interview. ​

164
Q

gieslman findings

A

cognitive - 41.5 correctly recalled
7.3 incorrect

standard correctly - 29.3 and incorrect 6.1

164
Q

gielsman results

A

he students who were interviewed using the cognitive interview recalled significantly more correct information than those with standard interview.​

The number of errors (incorrect items recalled) by both groups was similar.​

165
Q

conclusion of gielsman

A

the cognitive interview is effective in improving the quantity of information recalled and does not lead to a significant increase in incorrect information.​

166
Q

enhanced cognitive interview

A

In the early 1990s, researchers added to the cognitive interview, creating the enhanced cognitive interview (ECI). The ECI maintains the same principles as the cognitive interview technique; however, the ECI also examines how other social factors affect report accuracy.​

​

A study found that witnesses’ attitudes and motivations towards the interview affect the quality of their reporting. This includes how the witness perceives the appropriateness of the interview procedure.​

​

It was found that the higher the perception of the interview appropriateness, the more detailed their reports and the better their attitude was towards being interviewed.​

167
Q

evaluate vgielsman

A

There is research that supports the effectiveness of the cognitive interview to improve the accuracy of the EWT. ​

Geiselman: summarise his method and findings​

Explain how this supports the effectiveness of the CI.​

Relate to credibility of the CI.​

However, Geiselman et al. (1985) study has low ecological validity.​

E: This is because the participants were shown a video of a violent crime and asked to recall the events. The study was not conducted in a real-life setting. ​

E: This is a limitation as demand characteristics could affect as the participants knew this was not a real crime so they may have paid more attention to the details of the crime.​

L: Therefore, this may undermine the validity of the cognitive interview technique.​

​

168
Q

Limitation of gielman

A

One limitation of the cognitive interview is not often used by the police. ​

E: This is because conducting the cognitive interview itself may take longer as opposed to standard interview techniques as the police should allowed EWT to take time to think and express themselves without being prompted in order to improve the accuracy of the EWT. ​

E: Another reason why the police are reluctant to use the cognitive interview is because the cognitive interview requires special training and many police forces have not provided more than rudimentary training.​

E: This explains why the cognitive interview is not readily used. ​

Pysch (12 decks)

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