Unit 2: Population

Question 1

Population distribution

Answer 1

Not evenly spread. Most in South East Asia like the East of China and India. Europe also. Areas of the Middle East like Turkey and Iran. West Africa too. East coast of the USA, areas of Brazil and Argentina.

Question 1

Population milestones

Answer 1

500 million in 1471
1 billion in 1804
2 billion in 1927
3 billion in 1960
4 billion in 1974
5 billion in 1987
6 billion in 1999
7 billion in 2011
8 billion in 2020

Question 2

Natural increase

Answer 2

The balance between births and deaths in any year (expressed as a percentage of the total population size at the beginning of that year)

Question 3

Birth rate

Answer 3

The number of live births in a year per 1000 people alive at the beginning of that year

Question 4

Death rate

Answer 4

The number of deaths in a year per 1000 people alive at the beginning of that year

Question 5

Fertility rate

Answer 5

Represents the number of children that would be born alive to a woman if she were to live to the end of her childbearing years

Question 6

Infant mortality rate

Answer 6

The number of children who die before the age of 1 per 1000 children born alive

Question 7

Life expectancy

Answer 7

The number of year a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same throughout its life

Question 8

How have birth rates changed over time?

Answer 8

More countries have reached the 40-50 births per 1000 category but overall, birth rates have fallen

Question 9

Economic reasons for different birth and fertility rates

Answer 9

In countries where most people are farmers and children help farm the land, birth rates are higher. In places with a lower life expectancy due to hunger or disease, parents have ‘insurance children’ to ensure some survive. In LIC’s, children are needed to support parents in their old age. Compulsory education and raising the status of women tends to lower birth rates. As more women take paid jobs, fertility rates fall. Fertility rates tend to be low in cities because children are harder to support then in rural areas and family planning is more readily available. Rural areas in MIC’s/LIC’s have higher birth rates because contraception is expensive, supplies are harder to come by and the population has less knowledge of family planning

Question 10

Social reasons for different birth and fertility rates

Answer 10

If a country experiences large-scale immigration from a country wit usually high fertility rates, the people may bring expectations of large families with them. The age structure of the population also influences birth rate. If there are many childbearing aged people (15-454), birth rate with be higher. This is why birth rate thends to be higher in places with large numbers of working age people. In places with an imbalanced sex ration, birth rate will be depressed. Religious beliefs can oppose contraception causing higher birth rates. In times of war, birth rate is low but there can be a ‘baby boom’ immediately after. Among women who were finishing their childbearing years (40-45) in 2010, those with a less than high school qualification had the most children (2.56) and those with advanced degrees had the fewest (1.67)

Question 11

Political reasons for different birth and fertility rates (Singapore mini case study)

Answer 11

Pro-natalist policies encourage children. The means by which the birth rate changes are use of contraception, age of marriage and proportion of people marrying. Countries where people do not marry before 28 have lower fertility rates than where the average age of marriage e of 10 years younger because they have more years available to have children. In times of hardship, the proportion of women who never marry and have children rises.

Question 12

Where are the countries with the lowest death rates?

Answer 12

North America, South America, North of Africa and Middle East

Question 13

Influences on death rates

Answer 13

Age structure
Health or nutrition
Urbanisation
Economic development
Gender
War

Question 14

Age structure influence on death rates

Answer 14

When a high proportion of the population is old, the death rate is higher because old people are more likely to die than younger people

Question 15

Health influence on death rates

Answer 15

The death rate has fallen in all countries recently because of improved agriculture, availability of food aid and growth of medical services. In some countries, death rate has risen locally due to famine, war, AIDS or Ebola but in most parts of the world mortality is declining as conditions improve. Within countries, poorer people have lower life expectancy

Question 16

Urbanisation influence on death rates

Answer 16

Death rates are lower in cities than in rural areas in most LIC’s because of greater availability of medical services

Question 17

Economic development influence on death rates

Answer 17

As countries develop, a higher proportion of the population live in cities where death rate is lower. As a country develops, it goes through epidemiological transition - a shift from deaths caused by infectious diseases to degenerative diseases associated with higher standards of living e.g cancer

Question 18

Gender influence on death rates

Answer 18

Women generally live longer. Women also have lower infant mortality rates except for in a few LIC’s where there is relative neglect of female children

Question 19

Benefits of choropleth maps

Answer 19

Easy to look at
Shows where countries are

Question 20

Disadvantages of choropleth maps

Answer 20

Out of date data
Colours could be misleading
Categories may not be evenly spread

Question 21

What is the structure of a population?

Answer 21

Refers to the relative variation in age and gender within a country

Question 22

Rural-urban population difference

Answer 22

Variations in population structure within a country are most noticeable when rural-urban migration occurs
Young adults and young adults with children are more like to live in or move to urban areas from the countryside than older generations
In MEDC’s, older residents are more likely to move to the countryside through the process of counter-urbanisation
Rural-urban migration may also be sex-selective with either more males or females moving to the city depending on the types of jobs that are available

Question 23

What is the sex ratio?

Answer 23

The number of males per 100 females in a population

Question 24

Sex ratio at birth

Answer 24

This is not equal. In every country births are male-biased. There are biological reasons why there are slightly more boys than girls born every year. The natural sex ratio at birth is about 105 males born for every 100 females (can range from 103-107 boys)
This evens out over time as more males die at every age group than females

Question 25

Skewed sex ratio at birth

Answer 25

In some countries this is greater than others. Particularly common in Asia and North Africa. There is clear evidence of gender selection through prenatal sex determination and selective abortion

Question 26

Skew with birth order

Answer 26

In countries with a clear son preference, the sex ratio at birth becomes more skewed with birth order. The 3rd or 4th born is more like to be a boy than the 1st or 2nd

Question 27

Infant mortality with boys

Answer 27

In every country boys are more likely to die in childhood than girls. Boys are more susceptible to birth complications and infectious diseases

Question 28

Girl infant mortality rates with son-preference

Answer 28

In countries with a strong son preference, mortality rates for girls are higher than expected either through direct infanticide or through neglect and unequal treatment

Question 29

Sex ratio over life course

Answer 29

Tends to decrease over the life course because women tend to live longer

Question 30

‘Missing’ women

Answer 30

There are estimated to be over 130 million missing women in the world due to selective abortion and excess female deaths

Question 31

Correcting the sex ratio

Answer 31

The banning of sex determination scanning and gender-selective abortion may have limited the increase in sex ratio at birth in some countries but didn’t fully address the problem

Question 32

Development impact on sex ratio

Answer 32

The son preference declines with education but goes hand-in-hand with declining fertility rates and increase access to selective technology (which can increase ex ratio)

Question 33

Dependency ratio

Answer 33

People that are either too young or too old to work
Those of working age are the ‘economically active’

Question 34

Total dependency ratio calculation

Answer 34

(Population 0-14 + population > 64) / Working age population 15-64 x100

Question 35

Child dependency ratio calculation

Answer 35

Population 0-14/Working age population 15-64 x100

Question 36

Old-age dependency ratio calculation

Answer 36

Population >64/Working age population 15-64 x100

Question 37

Dependency ratio scores

Answer 37

For HIC’s is usually between 50 and 75. Usually an even balance between young and old dependents
For LIC’s may be over 100. Most dependents are young

Question 38

Limitations of the dependency ratio

Answer 38

Few people in HIC’s leave education before 18 and many stay in education until at least 21
Not everyone in HIC’s retire at 65. Some retire early but some choose to work longer
Not all economically active actually work. Includes stay at home parents, those unemployed but seeking work, people that are ill, disabled etc.
Many children in LIC;s are actually working well before 14
Unemployment and underemployment rates can be very high in some LIC’s

Question 39

Understanding age/sex structure diagrams

Answer 39

The number of people in any age group will always be affected by the combined effect of death rates, birth rates, immigration and emigration

Question 39

What are population pyramids?

Answer 39

Also called age/sex structure diagrams
They are bar graphs that show the amount of people in a country or area at each age category for each of the main genders

Question 40

What is demography?

Answer 40

The study of human populations

Question 41

The demographic transition model

Answer 41

A model showing expected change in birth rate and death rate through 5 stages. Can be applied to all countries. It can be used to compare countries at different levels of development at the same time or to project future changes in any given population

Question 42

Stage 1 of the DTM (before 1750)

Answer 42

Death rates were high because of disease, famine due to bad weather and poor harvests and war
Brith rate was high due to high infant mortality so families had to make sure enough survived because children were useful for farmers and they had to support elderly parents
Birth rate rose and death rate fell when there were good harvests. When harvests were bad or there was a war or disease outbreak, birth rate fell because people married later and more didn’t marry so there was fluctuation
Overall birth and death rates were high so natural increase rate was low

Question 43

Stage 2 of the DTM (1750-1880)

Answer 43

Death rate fell due to:
-Hygiene improved reducing death from diseases. Cotton clothes were easier to clean so replaced wool. Soap began to be used. Growing awareness of the link between hygiene and health
-In the later 19th century government tried to improve the urban environment. Municipal corporations were created and sewers were built to take away and treat waste from cities
Birth rate was little changed because factors keeping births high were still in place. Increase supply of food caused birth rate to rise in some areas
Natural increase rate rose

Question 44

Stage 3 of the DTM (1880-1930)

Answer 44

Birth rate began to fall. Death rate had fallen so less need for ‘insurance children’. More people moved from the countryside to towns for work due to the Industrial Revolution; children were less useful in towns. Laws were passed to limit the age at which children would work and education was compulsory. Having many children was realised to reduce a families living standards
Natural increase rate fell

Question 45

Stage 4 of the DTM (1930-1980)

Answer 45

Death rate fell further due to medicine development and better living standards
Birth rate fell further due to rapid expansion of women’s education and contraception. It fluctuated - down during period of economic austerity and up during periods of economic boom, up after wars because parents delayed having children during war. Baby booms repeat after 20-30 years because the same people are having children
Natural increase rate fell

Question 46

Stage 5 of the DTM (1980-present)

Answer 46

Old people living longer and birth rate remains low. Death rate is higher because the greater proportion of old people are more likely to die
Birth rate rose due to the arrival of immigrant families. Immigrants from Eastern Europe were 20-30 years old so child-bearing years
Natural increase remained low

Question 47

How useful is the DTM?

Answer 47

Its a simplification. In England in the 19th century urban areas had a lower birth rate but death rate was high due to disease. Different social classes had different experiences with death rate remaining high for poorer groups
Some stages don’t apply to all countries

Question 48

Why are some comparison with England and LIC’s which have passed stages 2 and 3 of the DTM misleading?

Answer 48

Death rate in LIC’s has fallen for different reasons. In England, modern medicine played little part in the early fall of deaths. In LIC’s successful campaigns against diseases of cholera, polio, malaria, yellow fever, tuberculosis and smallpox were important
In LIC’s death-delaying innovations (agriculture, food imports, hygiene, medicine) all arrived in a short period of time
Birth rate was/is higher in many MIC’s/LIC’s than it ever was in England. This is because people are marrying younger and a higher proportion are marrying than in England at an equivalent stage
LIC’s are at the beginning of economic development. When England was at stage 2, it was one of the most prosperous countries in the world

Question 49

Alternatives to the DTM

Answer 49

Most but not all countries have followed the DTM

Question 50

Short-term challenges of a youthful population

Answer 50

Resources needed for health, education, food, water and housing
Less money left to invest in agriculture, industry and other parts of the economy
LIC’s may not have these resources so introduce family planning policies to reduce birth rate
Parents may see a large family as valuable for the work children can do
People in poor countries rely on children in old age due to the lack of state welfare benefits

Question 51

The demographic dividend

Answer 51

As large young populations move up the age ladder over time, there is a large population of economically active young workers
If a country can attract sufficient investment to create enough jobs for these people, tax income for the country will dramatically increase allowing the country to improve its people’s quality of life
This situation can cause an upward spiral of economic growth called the economic dividend

Question 52

What are 2 caveats of the economic dividend?

Answer 52

It is time bound
It is not automatic

Question 53

Policies of the economic dividend

Answer 53

Strong health systems - children healthy and in school
Education - quality, for girls to improve human capital, higher education access
Governance - environment that encourage investment, gender-equitable policies
Economy - sound trade policies, policies that foster investment, access to credit, responsive labour force

Question 54

Long-term risks of the economic dividend

Answer 54

If a country is unable to create sufficient jobs for people in their 20’s and 30’s. unemployment rates will be very high
The government will not benefit from increased taxes and the quality of life for many will be very low. Could lead to social unrest and extensive emigration due to the lack of opportunities in their home country
If this continues into old age, with many people having lived their lives in poverty, the country will face even greater economic and social challenges

Question 55

Positive aspects of an ageing population

Answer 55

Childcare: many grandparents help to look after grandchildren so parents can work more. Benefits the economy and social cohesion
Volunteering: the elderly traditionally make up a large % of a nations voluntary workforce which is helpful for charities. Benefits society
Expertise and experience: many retired people help advise the younger generation

Question 56

Why is an elderly population a problem?

Answer 56

Puts healthcare systems, public pensions and government budgets under increasing pressure. Those over 85 need expensive residential care. Some countries have good pension provision by investing over a long time. Others have a pay-as-you-go systems as elderly dependents numbers rise. Recently the demographic problem was the population explosion due to higher fertility in LIC’s. Poverty amongst the elderly is a problem but technological advance could improve living standards. Other solutions like higher taxes may have to be used

Question 57

Remaining life expectancy

Answer 57

Occurs when older people are adopting healthier and more adventurous lifestyles

Question 58

Development

Answer 58

The improvement in the quality of life for individuals within a country. Often focuses on wealth but health and freedom of speech may be considered equally as important to some people

Question 59

When does development in LIC’s occur?

Answer 59

Local food supply improves due to investment in machinery and fertilisers
The electricity grid extends outwards into rural areas
A new road or railway improves the accessibility of a remote province
Levels of literacy improve throughout the country
Average incomes increase above the level of inflation

Question 60

Physical impacts on development

Answer 60

Landlocked countries have generally developed slower than coastal areas
Small island countries face considerable disadvantages
Tropical countries grow more slowly than temperate because of more challenging farming conditions and greater risk of poor health
Countries with lots of natural resources are more likely to develop quickly

Question 61

Economic policies impact on development

Answer 61

Open economies that welcome and encourage foreign investment will develop faster
Higher rates of saving compared to spending relative to GDP will improve development
Good governance, strong law and order and lack of corruption helps development

Question 62

Demographic impacts on development

Answer 62

There is a lear link between development and progression through the DTM
The highest rates of economic growth often correlate strongly with the greatest falls in birth rates

Question 63

The Human Development Index

Answer 63

Takes into account life expectancy at birth, education and GDP per capita. Highest possible value is 1, lowest is 0. The average in 2022 was 0.7

Question 64

Child mortality today

Answer 64

The lowest it has ever been. In less than 3 decades, child mortality has more than halved from 12.5 million in 1990 to 5.2 million in 2019

Question 65

Life expectancy

Answer 65

The key metric for assessing population health. It is broader than the narrow metric of infant mortality and child mortality which focuses only on mortality at a young age. Life expectancy captures mortality along the whole life course. Shows average age of death. Estimates suggest that in a pre-modern, poor world, life expectancy was about 30 overall. Life expectancy has increased rapidly since the Age of Enlightenment. In the early 19th century, life expectancy started to increase in the early industrialised countries while it stayed low ing the rest of the world. Led to a high inequality in how health was distributed across the world. Good health in the rich countries and persistently bad health in those countries that remained poor. Over the last decade, this global inequality decreased. No country has a lower life expectancy than those with the highest in 1800. Catching up rapidly. Since 1900 the global average has more than doubled and is now above 70. The inequality of life expectancy is still very large across and within countries.

Question 66

Food security

Answer 66

Based on the 1996 World Food Summit, food security is when all people, at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life

Question 67

Physical availability of food

Answer 67

Food availability addresses the supply side of food security and is determined by the level of food production, stock levels and net trade

Question 68

Economic and physical access of food

Answer 68

An adequate supply of food at the national or international level does not guarantee household level food security. Concerns about insufficient food access have resulted in a greater policy focus on income, expenditure, markets and prices in achieving food security objectives

Question 69

Food utilization

Answer 69

Utilization is the way the body makes the most of various nutrients in the food. Sufficient energy and nutrient intake by individuals are the result of good care and feeding practices, food preparation, diversity of the diet and intra-household distribution of food. Combined with good biological utilization of food consumer, this determines the nutritional status of individuals

Question 70

Stability of the other 3 dimensions of food

Answer 70

Even if food intake is adequate today, people are considered food insecure if they have inadequate access to food on a periodic basis, risking a deterioration of nutritional status. Adverse weather conditions, political instability or economic factors may impact food security status

Question 71

Food insecurity severity levels

Answer 71

Security = adequate access to food in quantity and quality
Moderate insecurity = uncertainties about the ability to obtain sufficient, safe and nutritious food
Severe insecurity = inadequate access to food with some people going days without food

Question 72

Zero hunger sustainable development goal breakdown

Answer 72

Ending hunger
Ending all forms of malnutrition
Correcting trade restrictions
Ensuring proper functioning of food commodity markets
Ensuring sustainable food production
Increasing agricultural productivity and investment

Question 73

Causes of famine leading to food scarcity

Answer 73

Crop failure
Population imbalance
Climate change
Economic failure
Droughts or floods
Government mismanagement
Wars
Land erosion or desertification

Question 74

Undernourishment

Answer 74

A person is not able to acquire enough food to meet the daily minimum dietary energy requirements over 1 year

Question 75

Economic as an adverse influence on global food production and distribution

Answer 75

Demand for cereal grains has outstripped supply recently. Rising energy prices and agricultural production and transport costs have pushed up costs along the farm-to-market chain. Serious underinvestment in agricultural production and technology in LIC’s has resulted in poor productivity and underdeveloped rural infrastructure. The production of food for local markets has been declined in many LIC’s as more food has been produced for export

Question 76

Ecological adverse influence on global food production and distribution

Answer 76

Significant periods of poor weather and severe weather events have had a major impact on harvests in key food-exporting countries. Increasing soil degradation in LIC’s and LIC’s. Declining biodiversity may impact on food production in the future

Question 77

Socio-political adverse influence on global food production and distribution

Answer 77

The global agricultural production and trading system, built on import tariffs and subsidies, creates distortions, favouring production in HIC’s and not in LIC’s. An inadequate international system of monitoring and deploying food relief. Disagreement over the use of transboundary resources like river systems and aquifers

Question 78

Health impact of food insecurity

Answer 78

Inadequate intake of nutrients
Increase risk for various chronic diseases
Increase risk for negative pregnancy outcomes
Long-term deficits in children’s socio-emotional, cognitive and motor functioning
Increase risk for negative mental health impacts
Total healthcare costs increase steadily increased severity of household food insecurity

Question 79

The cycle of food insecurity

Answer 79

1. Insecurity
2. Individuals or families find ways to cope
3. After time, these strategies take a toll on people
4. This can lead to other problems
5. Finally leads to less money to spend on food

Question 80

Main causes of hunger in 2023

Answer 80

Conflict
Climate crisis destroys lives, crops and livelihoods
Higher fertilizer prices turn current food affordability crisis into availability crisis

Question 81

What needs to happen to reduce hunger?

Answer 81

WFP builds human capital, supports government and stabilises communities
Families, homes, belongings and fields are better protected against climate hazards
Support is buffer to instability
A coordinated effort across governments, financial institutions, the private sector and partners is needed to mitigate a more severe crisis in 2023
Good governance holds society together allowing capital to grow

Question 82

How many people are facing chronic hunger globally?

Answer 82

783 million

Question 83

How many people are facing acute food insecurity?

Answer 83

345 million in 2023 which is more than double the number in 2020. Rise of 200 million pre-COVID

Question 84

Agricultural technology

Answer 84

The development of high-yielding seeds
Genetic engineering
Precision agriculture - integration of information to improve knowledge in site-specific areas
Environmental modelling - optimal use of genetics on specific soils for weathers
Advances in classic technologies
Remediating land that has been damaged by poor agricultural practices
Integrated pest management

Question 85

What was the Green Revolution?

Answer 85

Seen as the answer to food problems in MIC’s and LIC’s

Question 86

Advantages of the Green Revolution

Answer 86

Yields are 2-4x higher than traditional varieties
Shorter growing season allowed introduction of an extra crop in some places
Farming incomes have increased allowing purchase of better machinery, seeds, etc.
Diet of rural communities is more varied
Local infrastructure has been upgraded for a stronger market approach
Employment created in industries supplying farms
Higher returns justified a significant increase in irrigation

Question 87

Disadvantages of the Green Revolution

Answer 87

High inputs of fertilizer and pesticides are needed to optimise production. Costly in environmental and economic terms
High yielding varieties require more weed control and are more susceptible to pests and diseases
Middle and high income farmers benefitted more than those on low incomes widening the income cap in rural communities causing more rural-to-urban migration
Some HYV’s have an inferior taste
Salinisation problems have increased as well as irrigation expanding
HYV’s can be low in minerals and vitamins, people become low in zinc, iron, vitamin A etc

Question 88

Perennial crops

Answer 88

These crops protect the soil from erosion and have other advantages. Plant biologists hope to breed plants that resemble domestic crops but retain their perennial habit. Classic crossing methods have worked in searching for perennial crop plants. Someplant breeders are speeding up the process by using genetic engineering. The objective is to find genes that are limited to domestication then insert these into wild plants

Question 89

The role of war in sustaining populations

Answer 89

War is a major issue for development. It reduces the ability of a country to sustain its population. Major conflict can set back development. In many conflicts water, food and other resources are deliberately destroyed to make it difficult for the opposing population. Where development succeeds, countries become safer from violent conflict making subsequent development easier

Question 90

The role of trade barriers in sustaining populations

Answer 90

Trade barriers are a constraint. Many LIC’s complain that the tariffs, quotas and regulations by HIC’s are too stringent. Reduces export potential of poorer countries and hinders their development

Question 91

The role of tropical storms in sustaining development

Answer 91

Tropical storms are a hazard and impede development in LIC’s

Question 92

The role of floods in sustaining development

Answer 92

Regions at risk of floods are often deprived of investment in agriculture and other aspects of development because of potential losses

Question 93

The role of droughts in sustaining development

Answer 93

Droughts impact the ability to sustain changing populations. Desertification is reducing the agricultural potential of many countries

Question 94

The role of volcanic eruptions in sustaining development

Answer 94

Volcanic eruptions can devastate large areas, covering farmland in lava, burying settlements and destroying infrastructure

Question 95

The role of earthquakes in sustaining development

Answer 95

Earthquakes can impact resource development, adding to the costs of development due to expensive construction techniques required to mitigate the consequences

Question 96

Carrying capacity

Answer 96

The largest population that the resources of a given environment can support. It is not a fixed concept as advances in technology can significantly increase the carrying capacity of an area

Question 97

Ecological footprint

Answer 97

The sum of all the cropland, grazing land, forest and fishing grounds required to product the food, fibre and timber it consumes, to absorb to wastes emitted when it used energy and to provide space for its infrastructure

Question 98

Biocapcity

Answer 98

The ability of a particular area to support human life in terms of the amount of food, fuel etc. It can produce the amount of waste it can deal with

Question 99

Measuring ecological footprint

Answer 99

Measure in global hectares. Gha is a hectare with world-average ability to produce resources and absorb wastes. In 2005 it was calculated as 2.7gha needed per person. The biocapacity of the earth allows for only 2.1gha per person. With demand outstripping supply, the Earth is already living beyond its environmental means

Question 100

Components of an ecological footprint

Answer 100

Carbon
Forest
Cropland
Grazing land
Fishing grounds
Built-up land

Question 101

Classification of resources

Answer 101

Biotic and abiotic
Individual, community, national and international
Renewable and non-renewable
Potential, developed, stock and reserves

Question 102

Environment sustainable resource development

Answer 102

Natural resources used
Environmental management
Pollution prevention

Question 103

Economic sustainable resource development

Answer 103

Profit
Cost savings
Economic growth
Research and development

Question 104

Social sustainable resource development

Answer 104

Standard of living
Education
Community
Equal opportunities

Question 105

What do the high, middle and low income countries take up of the world resources?

Answer 105

Richest = 76%
Middle = 22%
Low = 1.5%

Question 106

Optimum population

Answer 106

The ideal population size to exploit a country’s resource base and achieve the highest level of living standards

Question 107

Underpopulation

Answer 107

Not enough people in a country to maximise the country’s economics potential

Question 108

Overpopulation

Answer 108

Too many people in the country for the available resources meaning that they are used unsustainably and/or living standards are sub-optimal

Question 109

Optimal rhythm of growth

Answer 109

This is a dynamic concept of population growth whereby population responds to substantial technological advances. The most obvious examples of population pressure are found in LIC’s but these could be because of absolute overpopulation or the result of underdevelopment that could be rectified

Question 110

Possible responses of population pressure

Answer 110

Emigration
Economic diversification
Intensification of land use systems
Physical deterioration of resource base and human population

Question 111

Thomas Malthus

Answer 111

In 1798 he put forward his ideas that the availability of food is the main limit to population growth. He considered that in an area with no technological change or trade, the human population would increase geometrically but food supply is limited by land so can only increase arithmetically. If not controlled the human population would rise to a level beyond which the land could support it. This would lead to events or population ‘checks’ such as famine, poverty, disease and war. These positive checks would increase mortality keeping the population in balance with available resources. The role of preventative checks measure involving moral restraint reduce fertility through abstinence and delayed marriage.

Question 112

Anti-malthusians

Answer 112

On a global scale, the suffering and malnutrition blights some people in some developing countries reinforce Malthusians ideas. However anti-malthusians criticise the simplicity of the theory in that food shortages are not the only possible reason why disease, starvation and war occur. He also developed his ideas before many technological innovation for intensive farming making them less applicable today

Question 113

Neo-malthusians

Answer 113

They update the principles of the original theory and apply them to present-day. While acknowledging how agriculture and industrial innovation can support rapidly growing human populations, they stay pessimistic in that natural environments still determine a limit to population numbers

Question 114

Paul Ehrlich and the Club of Rome

Answer 114

His ideas warned of mass-starvation stemming from overpopulation. The Club of Rome organisation established in 1968 with an aim to investigate and advocate ways of dealing with international issues including the population-resource relationship that economic and population decline would occur within 100 years suggesting a need for a global population-resource equilibrium to happen. They based predictions on computer-generated models that stimulate global population growth, industrial output, resource depletion, food per capita and pollution. This allowed them to project future scenarios to forecast areas of growth and limits to this. They concluded that population and economic growth in the present would rapidly deplete the world’s finite resources. The modelled variable would rise exponentially while technology for resource availability is linear, limiting what is needed to power industry and survive. Their ideas gave insufficient credit to the extent to which human inventions might allow for new sustainable production methods.

Question 115

Esther Boserup

Answer 115

Her optimistic theories on the population-resource relationship do consider the role of technology in balancin population and resources. She suggested, years after Malthus’s ideas, that an increasing population incentivises technological innovation and the introduction of new farming methods, intensifying and improving agricultural practices to meet rises in demand on resources, stimulating further population growth and encouraging development. She considers humans to be the ultimate resource as scientific and agricultural development drives increases in food production. Nationally county’s have been incentivised to expand their resources base.

Question 116

David Harvey

Answer 116

He examined the level of access to resources within the population. He said there continues to be difference in the level of access to resources by different segments of the population due to the spatial fox of capitalism. A spatial fox will occur when capitalists can’t exploit the labour and natural resources of a location to generate profit. This causes them to move to a different location. The spatial fix results in the continuation of the capitalist system and prevents its collapse. It will lead also to the continuation of differences in the level of access to resources by different segments of the population and is why a lot of people are persistently damaged

Question 117

The Green Revolution and Population Theories

Answer 117

The Green Revolution and new intensive farming and HYV’s is believed to have reduced famine and malnutrition which may have occurred. Can;t be proven. GM crops have also become important in food production. Green Revolution developments were criticised for shifting production away from traditional subsistence farming in some places, to export-oriented production causing the poorest farmers to lose out as land was given to agri-businesses and they couldn’t afford to invest in new technology. GM crops are criticised for the unknown long-term impact they may have on humans and the environment. Therefore Boserup’s ideas are criticised as she didn’t acknowledge that the Earth’s land can be degraded with intensive farming and unsuitable techniques, limiting its productive capacity. Famine and malnutrition are especially in areas affected by extreme weather and political problems. Both Boserup and Malthus didn’t consider tensbounday exchanges like migration and trade. Malthus considers populations as uniform in suffering that may occur in being checked and Boserup doesn’t acknowledge that not all societies and people will be able to innovate ot meet the needs of a growing population.

Question 118

Maxism

Answer 118

Karl Marx’s perspective on population and resource extraction considers the nature of the resource distribution within the population. He showed that due to the way societies and economies are organised in a capitalist system, most people lack access to resources and are persistently disadvantaged. This is because a capitalist economic system consists of a minority of people who own the means of production and control the conditions of production. Capitalists employ the majority of people to produce commodities for sale. They pay wages to workers who produce these. To continually generate profit, capitalists have to lower wages and/or exploit workers. He argues that this is not sustainable long-term because of the increasing hardship on the labour and exploited labour will not be able to afford to purchase the commodities produced. Reduces profits. There will e an exhaustion of natural resources. He predicted that this system will eventually collapse due to this. It will eventually be replaced with a fairer system call co-operative ownership.

Question 119

Population policies

Answer 119

All of the measures explicitly or implicitly by a government aimed at influencing population size, growth, distribution or composition. They evolve over time and are documented in writing

Question 120

What are pro-natalist policies?

Answer 120

Promote larger famileis

Question 121

What are anti-natalist policies?

Answer 121

Aim to limit births

Question 122

What might population policies encourage or aim to do?

Answer 122

May encourage immigration to increase population especially amongst the economically active
May aim to redistribute a population by encouraging trans-migration (trans-migration) or by displacing populations
Policies that narrow people’s choices are often very controversial and are arguably against people’s human rights

Question 123

Implementing population policies

Answer 123

More countries have declared a desire to alter population growth than those who have actually implemented a policy to do something about it
Most of the policies enforced have been anti-natalist

Question 124

Pro-natalist policies

Answer 124

There has been a growing trend towards countries implementing pro-natalist policies to increase birth rates

Question 125

Why do countries implement pro-natalist policies?

Answer 125

They are concerned about:
The socio-economic implications of population ageing
The decrease in supply of labour
The long-term prospect of population decline

Question 126

Reality of population-food supply relationships

Answer 126

The food and agriculture organisation of the UN (FAO) estimated that 805 million people were chronically undernourished in 2012-2014, down over 100 million from the previous decade
Famines are a lot less frequency than they used to be
None of the recent famines were as severe as before due to international food aid

Question 127

Disadvantages of HYV’s and other food technologies

Answer 127

HYV’s need additional water and fertiliser to grow well. They can grow better if that have extra inputs so are more easily adopted by wealthier farmers. Rich farmers therefore benefitted most and were able to buy the land of poorer farmers
They need fertiliser made from fossil fuels. These are expensive, finite and are implemented in climate change
The introduction of HYV’s meant that more types of wheat and rice were replaced by 1 species. This has the risk of disease that attacks the new strain -> disaster
HYV’s, GM crops, animal breeding to produce larger or more productive animals, fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation and new forms of machinery have all hugely increased agricultural production. A dairy cow in 1900 produced 2000 litres of milk a year, now up to 10000 litres

Question 128

How is food technology distributed?

Answer 128

Unevenly. The gap in production between HIC’s, MIC’s and LIC’s have widened. Places have lagged behind where many farmers still use hand tools, make little use of industrial fertilisers and where yields per hectare are slightly higher than 100 years ago. The world as a whole produced enough food for everyone by it is unevenly distributed and the poorest areas suffer food shortages

Question 129

What are the 5 population-food relationship country types?

Answer 129

Big traditional food producers
Emerging food exporters
Countries that are just self-sufficient
High income food importers
Low income food importers

Question 130

Big traditional food producers

Answer 130

According to the FAO of the UN, only 41 countries are net exporters of food. Most of these have a good climate and rich soil

Question 131

Emerging food exporters

Answer 131

These are countries that have started to export food recently. Some have rich soils

Question 132

Countries that are just self sufficient

Answer 132

Includes some countries with huge populations. These are countries where food production has kept up with population growth but they need most of this production to feed their own people. They have benefitted from the use if high-yielding seed varieties and other western technologies

Question 133

High income food importers

Answer 133

These are countries with limited land or water or dense populations. They can’t grow enough food but they have enough income to import food

Question 134

Low income food importers

Answer 134

LIC’s that don’t provide sufficient food. Coastal cities survive by importing food while inland farmers grow food for themselves with limited connection to urban markets. These farmers incomes are too low to buy technology they would allow yields to improve. Populations have grown fast. Government are often corrupt or weak, wars and civil unrest are common

Question 135

Limits to food production

Answer 135

The same rate of progress cannot be expected in the future. Crop yields are no longer rising as fast as they did from 1960-1990. HYV’s may have reached the limit of increased yield. Bacteria, fungi and weeds have evolved to become resistant to chemicals
In some places, land is in short supply: most suitable agricultural land is already in used and a lot of good land is being lost to construction to house a growing population. Over-cultivation and over-grazing are causing some farmland to become degraded, especially in dry areas
Water supplies are finite. About 40% of the world’s foo dis produced on irrigated land. Much of this comes from aquifers. Some of the water stored in aquifers fell as rain in a previous wetter climate and will not be replenished. Some are replenished but not as quickly as the water is pumped out.
Climate change is worsening this situation. Hot and dry weather is becoming more frequent.
More farms are producing non-food crops like biofuel. Maize contains starch broken into sugars and distilled into ethanol. This can be blended with petrol to work in vechiles.