Unit 4: Migration

Question 1

Definition of migration and circulatory movement

Answer 1

The movement of people across a specific boundary, national or international, to establish a new permanent place of residence
The UN defines this as lasting for at least a year
Any movement of residence for less than a year are classed as circulatory movements

Question 2

Demographic variables of migration

Answer 2

Migration is more volatile and unpredictable than fertility and mortality
It can alter quickly as a result of changing economic, political, social and environmental circumstances
Migration may not occur if the desire to move is overcome by the magnitude of constraints

Question 3

Internal migration

Answer 3

Internal migrants move within the frontiers of one nation

Question 4

International migration

Answer 4

International migrants cross international boundaries

Question 5

Immigration

Answer 5

The movement of persons into a new country with the intention to reside in that country

Question 6

Emigration

Answer 6

The act of leaving ones own country to settle permanently in another, moving abroad

Question 7

In-migration

Answer 7

People moving into another area within their own country

Question 8

Out-migration

Answer 8

The process of people moving out of an area in their country to move to another area in their country permanently

Question 9

Net migration

Answer 9

The number of migrants entering a region or country-the number of migrants who leave the same region or country

Question 10

Origin

Answer 10

Migrations are embarked upon from an area of origin

Question 11

Destination

Answer 11

Migrations are completed at an area of destination

Question 12

Migration stream

Answer 12

Migrants sharing a common origin and destination form a migration stream

Question 13

Counterstream

Answer 13

For every migration stream, a counterstream or reverse flow at a lower volume usually results as some migrants dissatisfied with their destination return home

Question 14

Push factors definition

Answer 14

The observations that are negative about an area in which the individual is presently living

Question 15

Pull factors definition

Answer 15

The perceived better conditions in the place to which the pigrant wishes to go

Question 16

Chain migration

Answer 16

Once strong links between a rural and an urban area are established, the phenomenon of chain migration frequently results

Question 17

Relay migration

Answer 17

After one or a small number of pioneering migrants have led the way, others from the same rural community follow. In some communities, relay migration has been identified where at different stages in a family’s life cycle different people take responsibility for migration in order to improve the financial position of a family

Question 18

Stepped migration

Answer 18

Where the rural migrant initially heads for a familiar small town and then after a period of time moves on to a larger urban settlement

Question 19

Urban hierarchy

Answer 19

Over many years, the migrant may take a number of steps up the urban hierarchy

Question 20

Voluntary migration

Answer 20

Where the individual or household has a free choice about whether or not to move

Question 21

Forced migration

Answer 21

Occurs when the individual or household has little or no choice but to move. This may be due to environmental or human factors

Question 22

Push factors

Answer 22

Intolerance
Poor employment
Low income
Housing shortages
Social upheaval
Natural disasters
Adverse climatic conditions

Question 23

Pull factors

Answer 23

Job prospects
High wages
Improved housing
Tolerance
High standard of living
Attractive environment
Amenities

Question 24

Historical theories

Answer 24

Migration can take many forms and the causes and processes can be very complex. There have been attempts to classify migration types and explain the factors at work and likely outcomes

Question 25

Ravensteins law of migration

Answer 25

He attempted to explain the movement of people without regard to a particular group or location. His work though was largely based on his experiences of migration in Great Britain during his lifetime

Question 26

Ravensteins characteristics of migration

Answer 26

The greatest body of migrants travel short distances
This produces currents directed towards great commercial centres
Each current has a compensating counter-current in the opposite direction
Both currents display similar characteristics
Long distance movements are directed towards great commercial centres
People in urban areas migrate less than people in rural areas
Males migrate more over long distances and females migrate more over short distances
Most migrants are between 20-34 years old
People mainly move for economic reasons
Urban housing development is inadequate for the influx of migrants so ghettos/shanties are formed

Question 27

Stouffer-gravitational model

Answer 27

Migrants might settle for a location other than their intended destination. The number of persons going a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at that distance and inversely proportional to the number of intervening opportunities

Question 28

Lee’s push and pull model

Answer 28

Introduced the idea of intervening obstacles. He also stated that each individual might view the attributes of both the source and destination city differently depending on their age, gender, class and martial status

Question 29

Petersons 5 types of migration

Answer 29

Primitive: The movements of nomadic pastoralists and that of shifting cultivators. Availability of rainfall and fertility of soils being the main determinants of migration patterns
Impelled: Takes under threat or perceived threat (physical or human). Country’s likely to be affected have procedures to move people out if it occurs
Forced: Similar to impelled but without lack of choice. Physical events also cause this
Free: Distinction between free and mass is only of numbers
Mass
Each is then divided into conservative and innovative
Conservative=preserving a certain standard of living
Innovative=improving standard of living

Question 30

Mabogunje migration framework

Answer 30

Further explored push and pull factors to explain rural-urban migration in Africa. Not just cause and effect in the model. Includes feedback and modifications and actions and reactions between urban and rural areas. The model takes into consideration both economic and social factors and the environment of change within the continent. Is a system where there is interdependence and self-regulation and modification. Continuous action and reaction so urban economic expansion will stimulate migration from villages close to urban areas while a decline in the economy will reduce these flows of migrant labour and may lead to a reversal of the flow. Adjustments in the source region are important. Fewer agricultural workers as a result of the out-migration may lead to an increase in income per person for those still in the rural economy. These remaining families may benefit from money sent back to the village as remittances. It is possible that the new urban arrivals will use any increase sin income to spend on their new homes

Question 31

Byerlee, todaro and stark

Answer 31

Byerlee uses a cost-benefit model by which he considers migration as the outcome of this. He suggests that the decision to migrate will be taken when the benefit exceeds the costs. This was persued by Todaro. Migrants usually are well informed as to what to expect when they arrive as there is a flow of information back to the source region from earlier migrants. They may not find employment immediately, but are prepared to stay rather than return to the country. If they are successful in finding work the financial rewards are higher than at home. Stark suggested that families decide to migrate to improve economic status. One family member migrates, sends money home and if migration is economically successful, other member will follow

Question 32

Marxist theory

Answer 32

Sees labour migration as an inevitable process as economies move towards a capitalist model and workers become divorced from the land. Migration is essential for capitalist production which is located in urban areas, encouraging mass rural to urban movements of people. Globally migration is sometimes seen as a way of capitalist HIC’s to exploit LIC’s. According to Rubenstein remittances are a ‘minor component of surplus labour extraction, a small change to capital in a grossly unequal process of exchange between core and peripheral societies’

Question 33

Structuration theory

Answer 33

Includes individual motives and those structural and cultural factors that influence migrants. It stresses that rules designed to regulate behaviour also provide opportunity and room for maneuver for those they seek to restrain

Question 34

Gender analysis

Answer 34

Significant area of research in recent years. Examines the different approaches to migration by men and women. According to Arjan de Haan ‘there is now much more emphasis on the different migration responses by women and men which themselves are context dependent and on gender discrimination in returns to migrant labour’

Question 35

Age analysis

Answer 35

Mainly working age since migration is mainly for employment opportunities. Elderly more likely to live in rural areas not close to work. Younger usually live in urban areas or move for university

Question 36

Internal vs international barriers

Answer 36

The largest barriers to migration are different depending on the type of migration
Internal = cost and distance
International = immigration laws

Question 37

Cost of migration

Answer 37

Closing up costs
Actual transportation costs
Opening up costs
Distance and landscape
Human danger along borders
Government immigration laows
Skills required for visas

Question 38

Legal barriers to migration

Answer 38

Over time governments have generally tightened immigration laws and make it harder for people to migrate internationally. Most countries favour immigration applications from people with skills that are in short supply and from people that intend to set up businesses and create employment

Question 39

Periods of migration laws

Answer 39

Before 1914 government controls were almost non-existant. Obstacles to migration at the time were costs and any physical dangers that might be associated with the journey.
Reflecting security concerns it was curtailed in 1914-1945. Many perused policies that would be classed as overtly racist
After 1945 many European countries facing labour shortages encouraged migrants. Legislation was not repealed but interpreted very liberally
In the 1970’s slow economic growth and rising unemployment in HIC’s led to a tightening of policy that has remained. In some countries immigration did increase again in the 1980’s and early 1990’s spurring the introduction of new restrictions

Question 40

Migration data

Answer 40

Having access to data is increasingly important for countries who want t monitor patterns and introduce new legislation to control migration
Most estimate that migrant numbers are often underestimated by authorities. There are 3 sources of data: Censuses, population registers and social surveys. For all, moves are recorded as migration when an official boundary is crossed. Moves that don’t cross a boundary may not be recorded even if over longer distances

Question 41

Population censuses

Answer 41

Taken at regular intervals and cover whole countries. The data is birthplaces of the population and period migration figures. With birthplace, gives a broad picture. No information about the number of residential moves between place of birth and present residence. In period migration, British censuses have asked for a place of residence a year before as well as a place of birth. When compared with present addresses at the time of census, migration patterns can be traces. Intervening moves during the 1 year period and between censusus are unrecorded

Question 42

Population registers

Answer 42

Inhabitants register an address with the police or civil authority and notify of all changes of residence. Aim to record every move rather than those just caught by the period framework of censuses. In the UK only partial registers exist to record movements for some parts of the population. Social researchers have argues for the introduction of population register in these countries by opposition has focusses on possible infringement of individual liberties

Question 43

Social surveys

Answer 43

Can supplement other data sources. Some are to provide information on tourism and the efect of travel expenditure on the balance of payments but also provides useful information on international migration. The annual General Household Survey of 15000 households and the Labour Force Survey provide useful information. Questionnaire surveys are the means by which the relationship between attitudes and behaviour in migration can by fully analysed

Question 44

Internal migration

Answer 44

Movement of people within a country. If this is forced migration the migrants are Internally Displaced People or IDP’s

Question 45

Distance spatial dimensions

Answer 45

Intra-national
Local
Intra-district
Inter-district
Intra-provincial
Inter-provincial
Intra-regional
Inter-regional
LEDC-LEDC
LEDC-MEDC

Question 46

Direction spatial dimensions

Answer 46

Rural-rural
Rural-urban
Urban-rural
Urban-urban
Periphery-core
Core-periphery
Traditional-modern spheres

Question 47

Patterns of spatial dimensions

Answer 47

Step migration
Migration stream
Counter stream

Question 48

The role of distance

Answer 48

Levels of migration tend to decrease with increased distance (inversely proportional). Distance is often linked to cost. Travelling further usually costs more. Poorer migrants are more likely to go to a destination closer to their origin. The further they travel, the more barriers and constraints there are

Question 49

Direction

Answer 49

Most common movement types are rural to urban in LEDC’s and peripheral economic regions to core regions. These both result in movements from culturally traditional and often tighter small communities to larger, more diverse, more globalised and rapidly changing environments

Question 50

Urban to rural in LEDCs vs MEDCs

Answer 50

The difference between life in the countryside and cities tends to be more pronounced in LICs and MICs than HICs. Migrants in LICs and MICs can find assimilating into cities harder and may have to change their lives more

Question 51

Rural to rural migration

Answer 51

Less common but can happen as a result of jobs, family reunions and marriage. Governments may encourage this internal migration when wanting to develop new frontier areas.

Question 52

Stepped migration explanation

Answer 52

When migrants spend time in a place as a stepping stone to their intended final destination. Often involves progressing up the settlement hierarchy. During this time they may improve their finances, knowledge and skills allowing them to move on to a city. This is then urban to urban migration

Question 53

Urban to rural migration

Answer 53

Dominated by a counter-stream movement of people from the cities returning to their rural roots. Most people don’t move to the countryside early in their careers for work. Exceptions can be teachers, doctors and government officials. The movement of people from urban areas to the countryside is counter urbanisation. This is almost entirely an MEDC phenomena

Question 54

Counter Urbanisation push factors

Answer 54

Old housing
Poor quality schools
Lack of gardens
Lack of open space and parks
Air pollution
Traffic congestion
Parking shortages
Overcrowding
Higher crime rates
Noise pollution

Question 55

Counter urbanisation pull factors

Answer 55

Larger houses with gardens
Pleasant scenergy and countryside
ICT and internet impact
Out of town shopping malls
Lower crime rates
Safer for children
Less pollution

Question 56

Scale of internal migration

Answer 56

Macro
Meso Micro

Question 57

Macro-level

Answer 57

Highlight socio-economic differences at the national scale focusing on the core periphery concept. The development of core regions in many LICs had its origins in the colonial era which was characterised by the selective and incomplete opening of territories supporting development in a restricted range of economic sectors. Migration was encouraged to supply labour for enterprises and infrastructural projects. the introduction of capitalism through colonialism into non-capitalist societies influenced movement. The demand for labour in mines, plantation was satisfied by restricting native access to land and coercing people into migration to work through forced labour systems o taxation. The spread of a cash economy at the expense of barter into peripheral areas rose the need for paid employment that could only be found in the economic core. Post-colonial most LICs and MICs looked to industrialisation resulting in disproportionate investment in the urban industrial sector and the neglect of the rural economy. Where there is considerable agriculture investment the objective or end result was the replace labour with machinery adding to rural-out migration

Question 58

Weaknesses of the macro level

Answer 58

Fails to explain why some people migrate and others stay put when faced with similar circumstances in peripheral areas. Offers no explanation as to why not all forms of migration occur in the direction of economic core regions

Question 59

Meso level overview

Answer 59

Includes more detailed consideration of the factors in the origin and destination that could influence migration decisions. Lees origin, intervening obstacles, destination model is useful in this approach which looks beyond economic factors and recognises the role of perception of the individual. Of all factors, economic perspective dominates the decision to migrate. However other factors especially social environment have a strong influence on direction. Explains why capital cities with a wide range of social opportunities attract rural migrants

Question 60

Lees meso level

Answer 60

Lee argues that migration occurs in response to the prevailing set of factors both in the place of origin and in 1 or more potential destinations. Perception may vary between people as may the obstacles. Lee states that it is not so much the actual factors at origin and destination as the perception of these which results in migration. He stressed the point that the factors in favour of migration would have to considerably outweigh those against due to the natural reluctance to uproot rom established communities

Question 61

Causes of meso level migration

Answer 61

High population growth is often the major source of rural-urban migration but not the main cause of out-migration. Its effects have to be seen in conjunction with the failure of other processes to provide the needs of growing rural communities. Even when governments focus on rural development, out migration may not be reduced. In many LICs and MICs people are being displaced form the country because change is too slow to accommodate the growing size and needs or because in other areas change is too quick for redundant rural workers to find other jobs. Out-migration provides safety

Question 62

Timeline of meso migration

Answer 62

During the 1960s most demographers cited higher wages and varied jobs from cities as prime reasons for internal migration. The level of migration was also related to the rate of urban unemployment. While rural/urban incomes are easy to quantify they don’t take into account lower costs of living in the country and that non-cash income often forms a significant part of rural incomes. In the 1970s as more cities in LICs experienced large internal migration despite high unemployment. Todaro was one of the first to recognise urban deprivation on one hand and migration for higher wages o the other explained by a long term view of why people move the urban areas. People are prepared to ensure urban hardship in the short term in the likelihood that their longterm prospects will be better in the city. Other perceived advantages are higher accommodation standards, better education for children, better medical facilities, conditions of infrastructure and a wider range of consumer services. A regular wage gives them access to other advantages but as demand for jobs outstrips supply many can only be in the informal sectors.

Question 63

Micro level

Answer 63

Criticisms of macro and meso level are that they view migration as a passive response to a variety of stimuli and they view rural source areas as an undifferentiated entity. The specific circumstances of individual families and communities in terms of urban contact are important in the decision to move especially when long distances are involved. The alienation experienced by the new migrant to an urban area is to be avoided if possible. This comes from sample surveys and the high incidence of area of origin communities. These established links usually result in chain migration. The more established a migrant community becomes in the city the easier it is for other in the rural community to move and assimilate into urban society

Question 64

Levels of differentiation in rural vs urban areas

Answer 64

Level of income
Size of land holding
Size of household
Stage in life cycle
Level of education
Cohesiveness of family
All influence the decision to migrate. Family ties and commitments determine ability and influence who should seek employment in the city. The stage in life cycle here is crucial and its not surprising most migration in LICs and MICs are 15-25 years old. In some places relay migration is identified.

Question 65

Village to city soci-economic impacts

Answer 65

Labour
Jobs skills and experience
Young, impressionable, dynamic villages
Support costs
Migration for education

Question 66

City to village socio-economic impacts

Answer 66

Changed attitudes, outlooks, ideas and aspirations
Remittances
Return of educated

Question 67

Studies of remittances

Answer 67

The action of sending money in payment or as a gift
Remittances from internal migration are hard to monitor and estimate
The flow of money between migrants and their families is not always 1 way
Some studies have highlighted ‘village to city transfers’ to support the migrants in the search for education and new jobs

Question 68

Williamson (1988) study of remittances

Answer 68

Urban-rural remittances account for 10-13% of urban incomes in Africa

Question 69

Reardon (1997) study of remittances

Answer 69

Remittances accounted for 20% of rural incomes in areas distant from cities but could be as high as 75% in villages much closer to major cities

Question 70

Adepju and Mbungu (1997) study of remittances

Answer 70

Migrants often remit up to 60% of their income

Question 71

Helwegs 3 stages of remittances (spending by rural people receiving remittances)

Answer 71

1. Spent on family maintenance and improving land productivity
2. Conspicuous consumption
3. Invested in commercial start-up businesses unrelated to agriculture

Question 72

How development in areas of destination affect migration

Answer 72

The importance of pull factors in national and international movements in widely accepted. Migrants do move in reaction to newly developed opportunities. Recent studies show that people in the poorest areas of LICs and MICs do not have the highest levels of out-migration. Levels of literacy may be so low that access to menial urban jobs is difficult

Question 73

How development in origin affects migration

Answer 73

Development in rural areas of origin act as a stimulus to out-migration. Development often acts as an important stimulus widening horizons of a large number of rural populations

Question 74

How migration affects development at destination

Answer 74

Internal migration in LICs and MICs is beneficial for receiving areas. Rural migrants are often the most dynamic young adults from their origin benefitting the receiving areas, providing enough opportunities are available for most to gain reasonable employment. Newcomers can place a burden on urban amenities and services especially if there is high unemplyment

Question 75

How migration affects development at origin

Answer 75

Traditional view is that reducing un/underemployment and providing inputs like remittances and new skills, promotes development, narrows regional disparities and makes migration unnecessary. Recent research is contradictory and the possibility of such mobility having an adverse effect on the economy of labour-exporting areas. Lipton emphasised the inequality increasing affects of rural-urban migration in origin. High emigration from a village was related to unequal distribution of resources. Migration frequently involved the richest and poorest households. Richer potential migrants were pulled towards firm jobs prospects in formal sector and the poor were push by rural poverty and labour-replacing. The higher remittances from the rich acted to increase inequality. Out-migration can cause a shortage of labour but can alleviate un/underemployment. In some, lots of women now do agricultural tasks. This adds to an existing heavy household workload. Remittances help but are often too low to hire in labour. There is a tendency for land to be concentrated with migrant families who become non-farmers causing a fall in agriculture production. The impact of out-migration in agriculture depends on the interaction of a range of social and economic factors which change

Question 76

Political impacts

Answer 76

Depopulation and reduced political voice
Political primary for fast-growing urban areas
Ethnic tensions

Question 77

Depopulation

Answer 77

Reduced number of people can reduce political voice and result in decreased funding from central government. The region may become more peripheral to its country

Question 78

Fast-growing urban areas

Answer 78

Political voice becomes more important in some LICs and MICs especially capital cities have grown rapidly attaining an increasingly dominant political and economic role. Such primacy may be of large benefit to the residents of the capital city but to the detriment of the rest of the country

Question 79

Ethnic tensions

Answer 79

In-migration can change ethnic composition of a region or urban area causing tension

Question 80

General pattern of environmental damage in LEDCs

Answer 80

Large scale rural urban migration
Rapid expansion of cities
Need for housing and infrastructure
Loss of farmland, forests, wetlands etc

Question 81

Urbanisation on the environemnt

Answer 81

Deforestation due to increasing demand for firewood
Increasing demands on regional water supplies and other resources
The expansion of landfill sites to manage the extra waste produced
Increased air and water pollution from factories, households, power stations and transportation

Question 82

IDPs and refugees on environment

Answer 82

Tend to concentrate in marginal and vulnerable environments where the potential for environmental degradation is high
Difficulties in disposing of human waste and trash
Deforestation because of the need for firewood and building materials
Soil degradation and erosion

Question 83

Impacts of migration on demography

Answer 83

Bulge indicate many migrants return to the countryside when they have earned sufficient money in the urban area
Indentations caused by emigration from rural areas of young males without family ties
Less females migrate due to family ties and religious regions
Decrease in birth rate as a result of recent emigration to the cities of people in the fertile age group

Question 84

Impact of rural-urban migration impacts population structure

Answer 84

The age and often gender selective nature of migration can impact areas of origin and destination. This is no more so than in rural areas of heavy out-migration and urban areas where heavy in-migration is evident. Age/sex structure diagrams for rural areas in LICs and MICs show the loss of young adults and may also show a difference between the number of males and females in the young adult age group due to a higher number of males than females leaving rural areas. In some rural areas female out-migration may be higher than male out-migration. Urban population diagrams show the revise impact with age-selective in-migration

Question 85

Stepped migration definition

Answer 85

Where migrants from rural areas migrate to a town before moving onwards to a major city

Question 86

Urban-urban movement

Answer 86

People moving from 1 city to another

Question 87

Intra-urban movement

Answer 87

People moving from 1 to another area of the same city

Question 88

Counter-urbanisation

Answer 88

Movement of people out of cities into rural areas

Question 89

Where do young people usually live?

Answer 89

Have lower incomes so generally live in rented accommodation in inner city and industrial areas. Common for university students

Question 90

Where do young families usually live?

Answer 90

When young people have families they move out of the inner city fro more space and safter lifestyles. Outer suburbs have cheaper housing which is good for young families on low incomes

Question 91

Where do older families usually live?

Answer 91

Older families with adolescent children may move into more expensive housing as the progress professionally and have more income. Closer to city centres

Question 92

Where do retired people usually live?

Answer 92

Most migrate again to higher cost housing. May bre retirement villages or high cost housing in wealthy areas. Affluent city home areas usually away from suburbs

Question 93

Intra-urban movements impacts on urban areas

Answer 93

As certain demographics are concentrated in certain areas of urban settlements can segregate people of different ages and incomes
When housing lis limited richer people can still afford to buy homes but less well-off people can’t. House prices may be driven up in already more expensive urban areas, further segregating people and making it hard for young families to get on the property ladder.
In areas that generally older people migrate to, may be issues of an old population
Social issues like crime can be concentrated in the inner city where a similar demographic of low-income people live

Question 94

Ways stepped migration occurs in LICs

Answer 94

During the initial move from a rural to small urban area migrants develop skills and increase their knowledge and confidence. They may become aware of better employment opportunities in larger urban areas and develop personal contacts. For those in the formal sector a move up the urban hierarchy may be linked to a promotion or a transfer linked to public sector employment

Question 95

The family life cycle

Answer 95

Demographic analysis shows population movements in cities are closely related to stages in the family life cycle with available housing stock being a determinant of where people live at different stages. Young adults frequently choose housing close to the CBD while older families occupy the next ring out. Middle-aged families are more likely to live a greater distance from the central area and further out still in the newest suburb area young families dominate. Applies especially to a rapidly growing city

Question 96

Counter urbanisation explanation

Answer 96

Involves a series of fundamental changes in the redistribution of population including a population shift out of core industrial regions into peripheral regions and movements down the urban hierarchy. Changes in telecommunications have diversified many non-metropolitan economies so they are now viable locations for employers and residents looking for less congestion, lower costs and and better quality of life. The starting point was the transformation of the most accessible rural settlements into commuter communities. A rural lifestyle become more popular and its spatial impact diffused

Question 97

Period explanation of counter urbanisation

Answer 97

Emphasises the role of economic and demographic circumstances in the 1970’s. The energy crisis, periods of recessions, sharp growth in retirees and the impact of the post war baby boom weakened growth. In metropolitan areas push factors were strong and a rural location was viable for many. This viewed counter urbanisation as temporary which would subside once economic and demographic conditions were normal

Question 98

Regional reconstructing explanation of counter urbanisation

Answer 98

Emphasises the role of the new organisation of production, changing division of labour and increasing service industries. All stimulated a greater spread of activities and population to small places and the rural periphery

Question 99

De-concentration explanation of counter urbanisation

Answer 99

Highlights the lowering of institutional and technological barriers to rural locations. Preferences of lower density environments are less constrained than mast and more businesses and households have felt free to leave metropolitan areas, confident that prospects would improve. Key factor is the convergence across size and place in the availability of amenities that used to only be accessible in larger places

Question 100

International migration

Answer 100

There are those who voluntarily and those who are forced to migrate

Question 101

Economic migrants

Answer 101

People who have moved voluntarily for work and better quality of life

Question 102

Refugees

Answer 102

People forced to leave their homes and travel to another country due to fleeing conflict, political or religious persecution. Have been granted permanent or temporary residence by the host country or the UN refugee agency

Question 103

Asylum seekers

Answer 103

People who have left their country and are seeking asylum in another. Waiting to be granted residency and become a refugee

Question 104

International migration statistics

Answer 104

Most international migration is to HICs
14.1% of HIC populations are made from international migrants
1.6% of LIC populations are made from international migration
3% of the world’s’ population live in a country different than their place of birth (213m)
The number of international migration has increased in all UN regions but has increased to a greater degree in Europe and Asia
Europe-86.7m
Asia-85.6m
North america-58.7m
Africa-25.4m
Latin america and caribbean-14.8m
Oceania-9.38m

Question 105

International labour flows within Asia

Answer 105

63 million moved to a different part of Asia while living in Asia in 2017, largest labour flow. Largest flows are between south Asia and west Asia. 5 million went from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh to Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Bahrain. Usually for better jobs prospects as west Asia is generally wealthier

Question 106

International labour flows within Europe

Answer 106

41m wne to other areas in Europe in 2017. Germany has the most European migrants. Most German immigrants have moved from east Europe like Poland (1.9m), ROmania (590000) and Czech Republic (540000). UK has the 2nd highest European migrants in the EU with 700000 from Poland and 500000 from Ireland

Question 107

International labour flows within Africa

Answer 107

19m move within African countries. Movement especially in Sub-Saharan Africa is between neighbouring countries since moving is costly and most of countries are LICs. Countries with the largest migrant populations are South Africa (4000), Côte d’Ivoire (2200) and Nigeria (1200). South Africa and Nigeria have the highest GDPs in Africa

Question 108

International labour flows from Latin America and the Caribbean to North America

Answer 108

26m in 2017 making it the 3rd largest global labour flow and the largest between continents. 22m migrants are from Latin America and 4m from the Caribbean. Latin America migrant populations are highest in California (5.4m), Texas (3m) and Florida (3m). Most emigration is from Mexico (11.5m). Caribbean migrant populations are highest in Florida (1.5m) and New York (1m). Most emigration is from Cuba (1.2m)

Question 109

International labour flows from Asia to Europe

Answer 109

20m. 12% of all migrating Asians live in Europe. Germany, England, France and Spain have the most Asian migrants. Germany is the highest with over 1m from Kazakhstan and 250000 from Iran and Iraq. England’s largest Asia population is from India (840000) and has the most Pakistanis and Bangladeshis. France and Spain have a lot of east and southeast Asians from Vietnam, China and the Philippines

Question 110

International labour flows from Asia to North America

Answer 110

17m in 2017. Most Asian migrants are from east Asia (4m), southeast Asia (4m) and south central Asia (3.5m). Live mainly in California (4m) and New York (1.2m). Migrants from China are most of the Asian migrants in the USA (2.5m) then India (2.2) and the Philippines (1.9m)

Question 111

Voluntary migration types

Answer 111

Independent=an individual decides to move to a new location
Dependent=the decision to move is made collectively by a household

Question 112

Trends in migration

Answer 112

Growth in importance of labour-related migration and international student mobility so migration has become more temporary and circular;international mobility of highly skilled workers increased greatly in the 1990s and 2000s
Spatial impact of migration has spread with more countries affected as either origin or destination while many traditional migration streams have remained strong but new streams have developed
Proportion of female migrants has steadily increased. For some countries of origin women make up the majority of contract workers
Most international migrants from HICs goto other affluent nations. Migration from LICs and MICs is equally split between HICs and LICs/MICs but movement between LICs/MICs is usually from weaker to stronger economies
HICs have reinforced controls in response to security issues and to combat illegal immigration and networks that deal in trafficking and exploitation of humans

Question 113

Reasons for increased voluntary migration

Answer 113

Globalisation
Advances in transport
Advances in communication
Economic and social development in LEDCs has increased the number able to migrate and has increased the desire by many to seek opportunities abroad

Question 114

Sources of migration

Answer 114

Can vary from country to country. Influenced by historical, economic and geographic links between the country of origin and destination. Presence of earlier generations of migrants can help migrants overcome obstacles and make the likelihood of migration from that same country in the future more likely. Tighter immigration rules in many countries may limit current immigration to the family members of earlier ‘primary’ migrants

Question 115

Background of forced migration

Answer 115

The abduction and transport of Africans to the Americas as slaves was the largest forced migration. In the 17th and 18th century’s 15 million were shipped across the Atlantic. Recently the scale of involuntary movement in LICs is higher than thought but has also been more free labour migration. Focal points are dynamic economies of LICs wich have taken labour from neighbouring countries. In the late 20th century-beginning of 21st century the most violent conflicts have been in LICs. These have led to large-scale population movements. Not all have become refugees but many are IDPs. The global pattern shows little sign of abatement

Question 116

Trends of forced displacement

Answer 116

New forms of warfare involving the destruction of social, economic and political systems. Spread of light weapons and land mines at prices which give the whole population access. Mass eviction and expulsion as weapons of war and to establish culturally and ethically homogenous societies. In some places, neighbourhoods of states have been affected by interlocking and mutually reinforcing patterns of armed conflict and forced displacement

Question 117

The UN High Commission for Refugees

Answer 117

Responsible for guaranteeing the safety of refugees where they seek asylum and aiding the government of these nations. Has noted mre situations where people are repeatedly uprooted, expelled or relocated forcing them to live an insecure and nomadic life. Has observed the forced displacement of minorities including depopulation and repopulation tactics in support of territorial claims and self-determination, has become a characteristic of the modern world. In 2014 the number worldwide of forcibly displaced persons was 42.5 million including 15.4m refugees

Question 118

Causes of human displacement

Answer 118

LICs are prone to natural disasters. Poor nations don’t have the funds to minimise consequences causing forced migration. Some areas are repeatedly devastated and have a small response from the rest of the world. Ecological and environmental change are a common cause. Most of central Asia is affected by soil degradation and desertification created by agriculture exploitation, industrial pollution and overgrazing. Increasing large numbers of people have been displaced by major infrastructural projects and the commercial sectors land taking. In LICs the protests of communities in ‘progress’ are ignored for ‘national increase’ or greed. The World Bank and other international organisation have been criticised for financing large projects without consideration to people it directly affects. It is predicted that climate change will force mass migrations. In 2009, the International Organisation for Migration estimated that worsening tropical storms, desert droughts and rising sea levels will displace 200m by 2050

Question 119

Positive impacts of international migration on countries of origin

Answer 119

Remittances are a major source of income in some countries, helping the economy grow
Emigration can ease unemployment and underemployment
Reduced pressure on services so people may have a better quality of life
Return migrants can bring new skills, ideas and money
Reduces waste
Relaxed pressure on services and resources can decrease political conflict and tension

Question 120

Negative impacts of international migration on countries of origin

Answer 120

Returning migrants may question traditions
Loss of young adult workers who may have vital skills
Ageing population in communities with a large outflow of young migrants
Agricultural output suffers if labour force falls a lot
Underpopulation could cause more pressure on services
Small workforce for environmental conservatoin
Home country becomes dependent on remittances
Laws to grow workforce

Question 121

Positive impacts of international migration on countries of destination

Answer 121

Increase in available labour may reduce labour costs and inflation
Migrants bring important skills
Increases cultural diversity
Influx of young migrants can reduce population ageing
Migrants can contribute to society
Larger workforce for environmental potection
Migrants often do unwanted jobs and pay taxes
Country can develop strong ties with home country, reducing conflict

Question 122

Negative impacts of international migration on countries of destination

Answer 122

Perceived as taking jobs from established people
Increased pressure on housing and services
Change in ethnic balance may cause tension
Larger population can negatively impact environment
Conflict between nationals and migrants
High demand for environmentally unsustainable resources
May become dependent on migrant workers
Lack of jobs for nationals
Remittances do not benefit host country
Possible international disputes
Laws may be introduced to limit population

Question 123

Positive impacts of international migration on migrants

Answer 123

Wages are higher than in origin
Wider choice of jobs opportunities
Greater ability to develop new skills
Can support family members through remittances
Opportunity to learn a new language
Those fleeing from conflict or poor quality of life may have a better life

Question 124

Negative impacts of international migration on migrants

Answer 124

Financial cost of migration may be high
Separation from family and friends
Problems assimilating into a new culture
Migrants may be exploited by employers
Some migrations especially when illegal can involve hazardous journeys