Unit 6: Settlement Dynamics Flashcards
UK general case studies integrated here ... why? idk
Characteristics of traditional rural societies in HICs
Close-knit communities with everyone knowing and interacting with everyone else
Considerable homogeneity in social traits
Family ties, especially of extended family, are stronger
Religion is given more importance than in urban society
Class differences are less pronounced. Occupational differentiation exists but is also not as pronounced. Small settlement size results in greater mixing which weakens the effects of social differentiation
Less mobility both spatial and social
Changes in rural areas
Due to:
Rural-urban migration
Urban-rural migration
Consequences of urban growth
Technological and mechanical changes
Rural planning of local and national governments
Balance of funding from governments between urban and rural areas
Rural-urban continuum in HICs
The rapid change in rural areas in the last 100 years has blurred the lines that separated the characteristics of urban from rural areas. This has led to a spectrum running from most urbanised to most rural. Paul Cloke in 1978 used 16 indices to produce an index of rurality for England and Wales
Changes to the rural economy
Economy of rural areas no longer dominated by farmers and landowners
As traditional rural jobs have declined, new employers have moved into the countryside
Most businesses in rural areas are small and medium sized enterprises
Employments has grown more in rural areas than urban areas exacerbated by COVID
Other big land users in rural areas are recreation, tourism and environmental conservation
Changes to characteristics of rural communities
Social change has fueled in-migration of particular groups of people
Middle classes benefitted from cheaper housing in the 1970s to move to the countryside
This has changed dynamics of communities and increased house prices to the detriment of the original communities that were largely from workers. This has forced those people to move elsewhere
Gentrification of rural areas
Refers to the urban middle class migrating to rural settlements for living and recreational space causing change in the rural social class structure leading to the shortage of rural housing and the relocation of indigenous people
This could lead to a change in the type of businesses and services available in rural areas
Green belts
Established to prevent the continued growth of many of the largest cities. They are rings of protected open land circling an urban area. Aim to protect surrounding countryside from development and from 2 large cities merging. To protect rural areas from excessive housing and development, new homes were focused in urban areas (key villages). A consequence was that existing housing in the countryside became even more in demand and expensive
Government policies
Social and economic changes that impact the countryside have led voters to question the priorities/policies of governments. Led to a refocusing on rural populations and more laws to protect jobs, houses and services in these areas
Changes to agriculture
Agriculture is not a big employer of people in HICs anymore. Individual farm sizes have increased over time with woodland areas and hedgerows removed to make way for larger fields that can be worked by tractors and combine harvesters. Agricultural wages have remained low significantly below national average. As profits in farming become harder to achieve many have turned to diversification
Farm diversification
When a farm branches out from traditional farming by adding new money making activities. This can be an expansion into new innovations or non-agricultural business types
Farm diversification opportunities
Renewables (29%)
Property letting (15%)
Holding lets (12%)
Livery stable (6%)
Leisure (5%)
Farm shop (3%)
Organic crops
Herbs
Bees
Pick your own
Barns to homes
Industrial units
Wind turbines
MTB
Counterurbanisation
The process by which people migrate from urban to rural communities. This is for reasons such as job opportunities and simple lifestyles
Most evident just beyond greenbelts where rural settlements have grown and changed a lot
This counteracts the issue of rural depopulation
Metropolitan villages
Stage 1 is characterised y the conversion of working buildings into houses with new buildings as infill but some new building might be at the village edge
The stage 2 change is ribbon development along roads leading out of the village
Stage 3 shows planned additions on a larger scale of council or private housing estates at the edge of villages
Not all evolve in the same way especially those with green belt restrictions
Rural depopulation
Refers to the falling population in the countryside relative to urban areas. Was a concern in the 1960s in the UK and still is in LEDCs where rural-urban dominates. Counter-urbanisation in HICs has meant rural depopulation is limited to the most remote areas but exceptions occur where the economy is really struggling
Rural depopulation model
Unmarried young adults migrate to regional centres for better socio-economic opportunities
Population decreases, ages and births fall below replacement level
Reduction in business services due to falling demand
Key social service provision cut
Loss of services induces out migration of young families and ensures in migration is minimal
Ageing population and loss of balanced community
Rural services issue
Services and activities create a feeling of belonging and a sustainable future. Rural services have been in decline with an impact on the quality of life of people, especially without a car. Nearly half of communities have lost key local services. Poorer people in the countryside form a forgotten city of disadvantage. 1 in 13 primar schools closed since 1997 and more are under threat since they could lose funding if they don’t fill place. GP surgeries are also at risk due to polyclinics. 233000 are living in financial service deserts (no post offices in 1.25m or banks in 2.5m)
Reasons for rual service decline
The effect of market forces and arrival of supermarkets in local areas making local services not competitive. Changing pattern of rural population with more mobile residents with different shopping patterns becoming a greater part of rural life. Change in expectations of residents no longer happy with poor and expensive services
Key villages
The concept assumes that focussing services, facilities and employment in 1 settlement will satisfy needs of surrounding villages and hamlets. With falling demand dispersed services would decline so to mainina service provision, focus on locations with the greatest accessibility and combination of other advantages. Threshold populations could be assured and the downward spiral halted
Rural transport problem
Increase in car ownership recently has had a bad effect on public transport. Has not disadvantaged rural car owners but increased isolation of the poor, elderly and young. Lack of public transport puts pressure on low income households to own a car. Increases in fuel prices have exacerbated the problem. UK rural railway lines may be under threat on a repeat of Beeching cuts of 1960. Fears about government intention of rural rails were first in 1998 when the transport minister said branch lines in sparsely populated areas might be replaced by buses. Could convert track beds into guided busways. Replacing trains with buses mean only half of former users use the replacement buses. 1 in 5 rural household lack a car and there is a low bus service in many areas
Rural housing issue
Lack of affordable housing in villages means young people have to move to market towns or urban areas. 12% of rural housing is subsidised compared to 25% in urban areas. 1995 White Paper on Rural Development tried to improve rural housing by exempting villages with less than 3000 people from the right to buy for housing association tenants. This prevents housing moving to the open market and being bought at prices locals can’t afford. Government announced plans to speed up Ministry of Defence housing. 13000 emplyt MoD homes in the UK many rural. Rural households encouraged to take loders through rent a room
Second home advantages
New employment opportunities
Local business get new business and profit
Shops benefit locals too
Property taces increase revenue
Less demand on local services
Renovations improve appearance
Residents can sell land at high prices
Contacts with urban owners expose residents
Second home disadvantages
Costly utilities to meet demand borne by locals
Pushes up house prices for locals
Future schemes hindered by inflated land prices
Fragmentation of agricultural land
Destruction of natural environemnt
Visual degredation
Distracts local workforce from ordinary house building and maintenance
Different attitude of second home families disrupt community life
Rural policy changes
Increased focus on amenities: value that society puts on natural and cultural amenities
Pressure to reform agricultural policy: need to address farm subsidies, role of WTO and international trade in farm produce
Decentralisation and trends in regional policy: a move from top-down to locally focused policies involving local stakeholder and central government having a reduced role
Rural-urban migration
Is the dominant population shift in many LICs. The impacts vary in regions
Benefits of rural-urban migration
Reduces rural population growth and pressure on food and water supplies
Limits underemployment and unemployment
Provides valuable income through remittances
Challenges of rural-urban migration
Rural depopulation and an ageing population
Closure of rural services (public and private) and the population so customers declines
Insufficient labour to maintain agricultural production at former levels
Diseases
The spread of illness and disease may exacerbate rural issues. The spread may be quicker due to poor access to health services and vaccines. In southern African countries the impact of AIDS resulted in further depopulation
Poverty
Rural poverty accounts for 60% of global poverty but up to 90% in some. Many sub-saharan African countries have 65-90% of people in poverty in rural areas. In nearly all measures of quality of life, the poorest people in the countryside are worse off than the poorest people in cities. Most poverty in urban areas is caused by the migration of the rural poor into these areas for a better quality of life
Causes of rural poverty
Political instability and civil strife
Systematic discrimination on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion or caste
Ill defined property rights or unfair enforcement of agricultural rights to land and other natural resources
High concentration of land ownership and unfair tenancy agreements. Rental agreements often favour the rich landowners at the expense of the poor
Corrupt politicians and local governments
Economic policies that discriminate or exclude the rural poor from development
Large and rapidly growing families with high dependency ratios
Imbalanced market forces favouring land owners and those with existing wealth
External market shocks like climate change that impact rural livelihoods
The first cities
The urban revolution is the change in society marked by the emergence of the first cities 5500 years ago
The first cities mainly emerged in areas that are now LICs
The catalyst for the change was when sedentary agriculture based on the domestication of animals and cereal farming steadily replaced nomadic life
Trading centres began to develop after the first cities
The medieval revival was the product of population growth and the resurgence of trade with the main urban settlements of the period located at points of greatest accessibility
The urban industrial revolution
The 2nd urban revolution due to the introduction of mass production began in Britain in the late 18th century. The key invention was the steam engine. The demand for labour in coal towns and cities was satisfied by the freeing of agricultural labour
By 1801 1/10th of England and Wales was living in cities >100000. Doubled again in 40 and 60 years. London was the first city to reach 1 m and was 2 m by 1851
Urbanisation quickened as the industrial revolution spread to other countries. Initial urbanisation of LICs was restricted to concentration of population around supplies of raw materials for affluent HICs
By the most recent urban development in 1950, 27% live in towns and cities with most urbanites still in HICs. In HICs urbanisation was nearing completion
Problems for planner in post 1945 urban explosion in LICs and MICs
The rapid urban growth of LICs and MICs in the late 20th century in general outpaced economic development creating problems for planners and politicians
Urban exxplosion
Urban areas in LICs and MICs have been growing much faster than HICs did in the 19th century so urban explosion described contemporary trends
The difference between urban growth and urbanisation
Some of the least urbanised countries (China and India) contain many of the worlds largest cities and are recording the fastest rates of growth
Dependency theory and the capitalist economy
Dependency theory has been used to explain the urbanisation of LICs and MICs post 1950. Urbanisation here has been a response to the absorption of countries and regions into the global economy. The capitalist global economy induces urbanisation by concentrating production and consumption in locations that offer the best economies of scale and agglomeration, provide the greatest opportunities for industrial linkage and give maximum efficiency and least cost in term of control over supply sources
TNCs impact on urban explosion
TNCs encourage urbanisation directly in response to localised investment. Also influence urbanisation indirectly through their impact on traditional patterns of production and employment
Other urbanisation factors
Investment policies of central governments which generally favour urban over rural areas in an attempt to enhance prestige on international stage
Higher wage rate and better employment protection in cities
Greater access t healthcare and education
Decline in demand for locally produced food as consumers increasingly favour imported food
Backwash urbanisation
The combined result of these factors is backwash urbanisation, destroying the vitality of rural areas and putting pressure on cities
Future urban growth
Urban growth rate should slow as a result of falling fertility rates and a deceleration in the urbanisation process as more of the population urbanises
Current patterns of urban growth
Most urbanised regions are North America, Europe, Oceania and Latin America. Lowest levels of urbanisation are in Africa and Asia. Urban growth is highest in Asia and Africa since they contain the fastest growing urban areas. The urban population in 2014 was 54% of total (34% in 1960). By 2025 half the Asia and Africa will live in urban areas and 80% of urban dwellers will live in LICs and MICs. HIC urbanisation levels peaked in 1970 and have declined since due to counterurbanisation
Urbansiation
A process in which populations shift from rural to urban areas like towns and cities and the ways in which societies adapt to this change
Suburbanisation
The main factor in urban areas spreading out after the Industrial Revolution in the 1860s was the construction of suburban railway lines which spurred house building. Initially suburbanisation was middle class and after WWII with the growth of public housing, working class suburbs appeared. In the interwar period, 4.3m houses were built in the UK mainly in new suburbs. 30% were built by local councils
Reasons for suburban growth
Willingness of local authorities to provide piped water and sewage, gas and electricity
Expansion of building societies
Low interest rates
Development of public transport
Improvements of road network
In the late 20th century suburbanisation was limited by green belts and planning
Counterurbanisation
Most consistent feature of population movement in most HIC cities where each level of settlement hierarchy is gaining people from urban tiers above and losing people to below. Still reasonable number of people moving the other way. Does not mean an overall population decline of this scale because change is also affected by natural increase an international migration
Reurbanisation
Recently British cities have reversed population decline. Central government finance has been an important factor in the revival. New urban design also plays a role. Reduction in urban street crime due to the installation of automated closed-circuit surveillance cameras have significantly improved public perception of central areas. Rather than displacing crime to nearby areas the cameras caused a reduction in crime in surrounding areas. The government produced in the late 1990s the formation of 4.4m extra households in the next 20 years, 60% in existing urban areas due to the opposition of relaxing planning restrictions in the countryside. Many of the new households will b single person so existing urban areas may be where they prefer to live
Suburbs
Are outlying areas of a city close enough to the centre for commuters. Mostly residential but have developed a sense of rurality
Historical development of suburbs
1800-1900 saw rapid industrialisation. Industry outbid other potential land users and since a lot of workers were needed, unplanned housing was built. The housing was poor with few services and became no-go for middle class. Stimulated the middle class to move into suburbs. Continued to grow in inter and post war period. People move away from city centre for economic, social and environmental reasons. De-industrialisation made millions unemployed and unemployable due to limited skills. New jobs created in producer and service sectors but not enough to compensate. Urban unemployment rose, factories closed, dereliction rose and decentralisation sped up. Migrants to suburbs middle aged, mobile, affluent etc. Perceived social city problems (crime)
Changing employment in suburbs
All industries faced issues as office booms caused land and rent prices to rise. Was better economically to sell industrial sites and many became bankrupt so relocate to suburbs to reduce costs, have expansion space, escape congestion and attractive landscapes. Many suburban families have both adults in skilled work. Increased the affluence of the suburbs. Advances in mass transport allow people to live further away from work
Inner city consequences of suburbanisation
Suburbanisation of jobs leads to decreased employment opportunities os increased unemployment, increasing poverty
Increased vacant and derelict buildings may be dangerous and deter investment
Reduced need for high rise, high density buildings leading to clearance and replacements
Increased industrial and residential clearance for communication networks
Increased opportunity for environmental improvement of derelict land for recreation
Suburbs consequences of suburbanisation
Increasing price of land
Increasing pressure on green belt
Increase in commuters so pollution and congestion
Increasing demand for recreational facilities
Increasing demand for retailing
Increasing employment opportunities in offices and shops
Loss of character/community places of locals
