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Animal Nutrition and Physiology > exam 1 > Flashcards

exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

animals are part of kingom animalia and are chemoheterotrophs. what is the criteria for chemoheterotrophic organims?

A

chemoheterotrophs
1. cannot fix carbon (no photosynthesis)
2. oxidize organic chemicals

chemo: obtain carbon chemically not photo
hetero: from food/ carbon source not auto

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2
Q

double check if this is correct

what animal is an exception from being a chemoheterotroph?

A

sponges: photoheterotrophs

I THINK

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3
Q

what is the overall purpose of the digestive system?

A

organ system that takes in material from the outside world to obtain energy

understand the beaker picture example

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4
Q

what are the two types of digestive systems? bold the one humans have.

A

1. complete gut: gastrointestinal (GI) tract/ alimentary canal
has two seperate openings 1. for food 2. for waste removal

  1. incomplete gut: gastrovascular cavity - common in flatworms
    has one opening for both food and waste
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5
Q

what are tissues?

A

similar cells that perform a common function

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6
Q

what are the four types of tissues?

A
  1. Epithelial: form aboundaries between different environements, protects, secrets, absorbs, filters
  2. Connective: supprts, protects, binds other tissues together
  3. Muscular: contracts to cause movement
  4. Nervous: internal communication
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7
Q

what is the main function of epitheal tissues?

A

is it a sheet (one sheet is simple, mulitiple is stratified) of cells that covers body surfaces, lines body cavities (lumen) , and forms majority of glands

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8
Q

what are the characteristics of epitheal tissues?

A
  • little to no extracellular matrix
  • avascular: lack blood vessels
  • innervated extensively to sense the environment
  • high regernation capacity: constantly replacing lost/ damaged cells
  • example: stratified epitheal is found in the mouth
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9
Q

what is the extracellular matrix (ECM)?

A

formed by specific secreted macromolecules that form a network on which cells grow and migrate along

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10
Q

what is the main structure of epitheal cells?

A
  1. apical membrane: faces the outside (mouth), lines inner cavities
  2. microvili: finger like cytoplasmic extenstions to increase surface ares
  3. basal membrane: lines inner body, touches interstitial fluid
  4. ** tight junction**: point of cell contact to reduce passage between
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11
Q

what is the difference between the transcellular and paracellular routes?

A

transcellular: through a single cell
paracellular: between cells

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12
Q

where can each on the four tissues be found on the body?

chart attached, understand it

A
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13
Q

what are the three main function of the digestive system?

A
  1. digestion: including mechanical and chemical breaking down
  2. absorption: from outiside to inside movement
  3. elimination: undigested maaterial is removed as waste
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14
Q

what are the two parts of the digestion part of the digestive system?

the** D** in DAE

A

mechanical: teeth and stomach
- bolus: mix of food and saliva
chemical: enzymatic hydrolysis

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15
Q

transcellular and paracellular are a part of which function of the DAE?

A

absorption

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16
Q

what are the two organ groups of the digestive system?

A
  1. alimentary canal: a continuous muscular tube running from the mouth to the anus “outside” the body open on both ends to mechanically and chemically breakdown food
  2. accesory digestive organs: connects to GI tracts via ducts
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17
Q

what organs are a part of the alimentary canal?

picture attached

A

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine , large intestine, rectum, anus

answer in blue

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18
Q

what comprise the accesory digestive organs?

A

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

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19
Q

what are the three types of muscular cells?

know similarties and differences

chart attached

A
  1. smooth: fibers are non-striated, uninucleated, spindle-shaped, involuntary activity usually covering wall of internal organs
  2. skeletal: fibers are striated, multinuleated, tubular, voluntary activity usually connected to skeleton
  3. cardiac: fibers are striated, branched, and uninucleated, involuntary, only covering walls of the heart
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20
Q

define biomolecules

what is another name for them

A

biomolecules are known as macromolecules and are substances essential for survival, growth, maintainence, and repair that polymers

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21
Q

what are the four biomolecules?

A
  1. carbohydrates
  2. lipids
  3. proteins
  4. nucleic acids
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22
Q

which of the four biomolcules is absorbed differently from the others?

A

nucliec acids; thats why eating animals/ gmos do not alter human DNA by consuming other organism’s DNA

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23
Q

in general, how are monomers obtained from polymers?

A

polymers are cleaved my hydrolytic activity which is the addition of water to break covalent bonds

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24
Q

how are polymers made from monomers?

name of the reaction

A

polymers are constructed from monomers by dehydration (condensation) reactions

  • Dehydration Reaction
    – Covalent linkage of two monomers
    – Hydrogen removed from 1 molecule
    – Hydroxyl (OH) group removed from the other
    – Hydrogen and OH react to form water
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25
Q

what are carbohydrates?

list the monomer, picture, main elements, function

A

C:H:O in a 1:2:1 ratio
sugars and startches
water soluble polar molecules because of **-OH hygroxyl **groups and function to fuel molecules, structure, and storage

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26
Q

in carbohydrates, what is the storage in plants? in animals?

A

plants: starch
animals: glycogen

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27
Q

in carbohydrates, what is the structure in plants? in arthropods?

A

plants: cellulose
arthropods: chitin

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28
Q

what are the three classes of carbohydrates?

A
  1. Monosaccharides: monomer sugar
  2. Disaccharides: two sugars
  3. Polysaccharides: multiple sugars
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29
Q

what are lipids?

list the monomer, picture, main elements, the main types

A

CHO
fats
nonpolar, insoluble in water molecules with much less oxygen than carbohydrates
- triglycerides
- phopholipids
- steriods
- eicosaniods

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30
Q

what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated lipids?

A

saturated lipids: max amount of hydrogens, no double bonds
unsaturated lipids: double bonds

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31
Q

what are the functions of?

  • triglycerides
  • phopholipids
  • steriods
  • eicosaniods
A
  • triglycerides: three fatty acids bonded to glycerol
  • phopholipids: lipid bilayer of hydrophilic polar head and hydrophobic nonpolar tails
  • steriods: hormones, membrane structure, influence nutrition levels of micronutrients and glucose made from chloesterol
  • eicosaniods: 20 + C fatty acids for cell signaling (ex: prostoglandins)
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32
Q

which of the four biomolecules are not a polymer?

A

lipids

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33
Q

what is the components of a fatty acid?

A

carboxyl group and hydrocarbon chain

34
Q

what are proteins?

list the monomer, picture, main elements, stucture

A

CHON
amino acid monomers
amino acid + R side chain + carboxylic acid linked by peptide bonds (20 amino acids)
primary structure: sequence of amino acids
secondary structure: alpha helix/ beta sheet folding due to interactions of polypeptide
hydrogen bonds
teriary structure: folding due side chain interactions by all kinds of bonds
quarternary structure: more than one polypeptide

35
Q

what are a proteases?

what biomolecules do they interact with?

A

they break peptide bonds of proteins and denaturing the polymer and losing function

this occurs in the STOMACH

36
Q

what are nucleic acids?

list the monomer, picture, main elements, stucture

A

CHONP
nucleotide monomers
nitrogen base (AGTC) + sugar (deoxyribose/ ribose) + phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
AG- purines
TC- pyrimidine
deoxy- double stranded
ribose- single stranded

37
Q

what are agents of denaturation?

A

pH, temp, ionic strength, and solubility

38
Q

define membrane potential

A

differences in ion channel in a cell where positive ions are attracted to the ‘negative’ side and vice vera, moving passivley across channels

39
Q

what is the electric potential?

A

is represents the membrane potential of a by a graph displaying the change in voltage of an action potential over time

40
Q

is the following a high or low concentation intracellular and extracellular
Na +
K +
Ca 2+
Cl-

A

Intracellular:
high- K+
low- Na+, Ca 2+, Cl-

Extracellular:
high- Na+, Ca 2+, Cl-
low- K+

they are opposites

41
Q

what is an action potential?

A

rapid sequence of change across voltage membrane due to influx and efflux of ions

42
Q

which is the rising phase?

A

depolarization- rises from -70mV due to influx of Na+ (sodium entering the cell)

43
Q

which is the falling phase ?

A

repolarization- falls from +30 due to efflux of potassium (K+ leaving the cells)

44
Q

define depolarization

A

cell becomes more positive due to influx of ions
Na+ influx

45
Q

define repolarization

A

cell becomes more negative due to efflux of ions; membrane potential returns to resting
K+ Leaving

46
Q

what are two muscle cell (myofibril) characteristics?

A
  1. contractility: muscles contract when stimulated
  2. excitability: muscle cells respond to stimuli
47
Q

what is the order of coverings below? what do they cover?
1. perimysium
2. endomysium
3. epimysium

A
  1. epimysium: covers the muscle
  2. perimysium: covers fasicles
  3. endomysium: covered muscle fibers (cells)
48
Q

what is the order of muscle from largest to smallest?
myofibril, actin, myosin, sacroplasmic recticulum, fasicle, sarcomere, A band, I band, muscle, M line, Z line

A

muscle
fasicle
myofibril (cell)
sarcoplasmic recticulum (covering the myofilaments)
myofilaments: actin (thin) and myosin (thick)
I band, A band, I band
sacromere contracting portion

49
Q

what is actin

include the structure, other key componenets of interation

A

the thin filament with myosin binding sites, troponin Ca 2+ storage, and tropomyosin blocking sites

50
Q

difference between troponin and tropomyosin

A

troponin: binds Ca 2+
tropomyosin: wraps around actin to block myosin binding sites

51
Q

what is myosin?

structure, interacting groups

A

thick filament with gloubular head to attach to actin binding site and ATP-binding site (ATPase activity of ATP to ADP + Pi inorganic phosphate)

52
Q

how do muscles contract? what is the two goals of this process?

what is the name of the process

A

sliding filament model
1. cross bridge generates force
2. sacromere shortens

53
Q

what are the five steps of the sliding filament model?

A
  1. Myosin in low-energy state is ATP bound
  2. ATP is hydrolyzed by myosin head and Myosin becomes “high energy”
  3. Cross-bridge formation as ADP and (inorganic phosphate) are result of ATPase activity
  4. Power stroke: actin is pulled toward M line, ADP and Pi (inorganic phosphate) are released, and Myosin returns to low energy state
  5. ATP binding releases myosin head from actin
    Cycle begins again
54
Q

what are the three main parts of a neuron?

be able to label as well

A
  1. cell body: houses the nucleus
  2. dendrites: cytoplamsic extensions of the cell
  3. axon terminals: place of ion exchange and synaptic activity
55
Q

what two parts (systems) comprise the neuromuscular junction?

A
  1. nervous: somatic motor neurons
  2. muscular: skeletal muscle
56
Q

the nervous system is divdied into what to main parts?

A

the central: brain and spinal cord
the peripheral: somatic (skeletal muscle cell functions), parasympathetic (digestive physiology), and enteric (neurons along the gut/ “entero” mean intestine

57
Q

what is the synaptic cleft?

A

the gap between axon terminals and the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber where acetylcholine is released and allows for an action potential to generate calcium efflux into T-tubule invaginations of the sarcolemma

58
Q

what does calcium do when released from axon terminals? how is this an example of an action potential?

A

it binds to the troponin in the actin thin fliament opening myosin binding sites to form and cross-bridge causing it to contract as the sarcomere shortens
this is an action potential because it is regulated by the efflux/ avaibility of calcium ions

59
Q

smooth muscle characteristics:

A
  • no striations
  • no sarcomeres
  • uninucleate, central of the cell
  • spindle-shaped
  • involuntary
  • covers walls of internal oragns
  • no T tubules (no need for troponin/ calcium ion action potentials becuase involuntary
  • gap junctions or cohesive contractions
60
Q

true or false: smooth muscle is made up of intersistial cells of cajal

what is ICC?

A

true, ICC are pacemake cells that employ spontaeous deplorization

61
Q

smooth muscle create what kind of shape when contract? why?

A

the actin and myosin filaments are loosely arranged around the periohery of the cell and cause the cell to become globular when it contracts

62
Q

smooth muscle does no have tropinin proteins for calcium to bind to, what does it have?

A

calmodulin proteins are used to interact with calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular fluid that binds to the MLCK kinase to activate mysosin by phosphorylation

63
Q

smooth muscle contraction steps

A

calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellular fluid binds to the calmodulin portein that binds to the MLCK kinase to activate mysosin by phosphorylation allowing the thick myosin filament to form a cross-bridge to actin and shorten/ contract the muscle

64
Q

```

the two layers around the GI tract:

what does contraction of each layer do?

A
  1. circular, inner layer- contraction makes lumen smaller
  2. longitudinal, outer layer parallel- contraction shortens organ
65
Q

define peristalsis

A

waves of contraction and relaxation to have food moving back and forth for mechanical digestion and in one direction of the digestive tract where constraction occur behind the bolus

66
Q

define tissues and the four types

A

defintion: similar cells that perform a common function
1. epithelial
2. connective
3. muscular
4. nervous

67
Q

epithelial tissue functions

A

sheet of cells that covers the body surfaces, lines body cavities, and forms majority of glands wit little to no extracellular matrix

68
Q

epithelial tissue characteristics

A
  • little to no extracellular matrix
  • top layer is keratinized and “water proofed”
  • polarity: apical, top membrane/ basal, bottom membrane
  • avascular
  • innervated extensively- senses the environment
  • high regeneration capacity: replaces lost cells
69
Q

main function of simple epithelium

A

filtration, absorption, secretion: one layer allows passing

70
Q

main funtion of stratified epithelium

A

protection: the two or more layers are found in places subject to mechanical/ chemical stress

71
Q

body memebranes are multi tissued. what are the tissues?

A

epithelial and conective cells

72
Q

visceral vs parietal peritoneum

A

the peritoneum is the continous serous double membrane made of the visceral peritoneum membrane that touches the organ (mucosa) and the parietal peritoneum membrance that like the body wall

72
Q

what is the peritonal cavity?

what forms it

A

the peritonal cavity is the fluid filled space that allows organs to move without friction created by the continus serous membrane of visceral peritoneum membrane lining covering the organs and parietal membrane peritoneum lining the body wall

72
Q

what are the three types of body membranes?

A
  1. cutaneous
  2. mucous: digestive membrane open to the exterior, moist, and mucus/ other secretions
  3. serous: double membrane of mesothelium (simple squamous epithelial layer and underlying loose connective tissue)
72
Q

what is the mesentery?

A

extends form abdominal wall to digestive organs connectiing the visceral membrane covering the organs and pairetal membrane lining the body cavity functioning to hold the organs in place and provide routes to organs for blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves

73
Q

all digestive organs have what four layers?

A

lumen (hollow cavity)
1. mucosa
2. submucosa
3. muscularis externa
4. serosa/ adventitia
adventitia in certain parts instead of serosa

inner to outer

74
Q

where would the adventitia layer be found along the GI tract instead of serosa? why?

A

adventitia outer layer is on the outer covering othe esophagus which is in the throat. there is no serosa layer which is made up of the visceral peritoneum membrane that touches the organ (Muscularis externa) and the parietal peritoneum membrane that like the body wall because that is a continous/ closed layer in the abdominal cavity functioning to create the fluid filled cavity and allow organ movment with decreased friction

75
Q

what are the three layers of the mucosa?

what is above and below this layer

A

lines the lumen (hollow space) and touches food
1. ephithelial layer** of simple coloumnar (intestines and stomach for secretion/ absorption) and strateified squamous (mouth, esophagus, anus for protection) ** with goblet cells for mucus secretion
2. lamina propia: supports epithelium by loose areloar connective tissue and defenses against pathogens
3. muscularis mucosa: smooth muscle layer produces mucosa movement

76
Q

what is the submucosa made of?

A

connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels

77
Q

what are the two layers of the muscularis externa and its function?

A
  1. inner circular layer- diameter, when contracts, shrinks lumen
  2. outer longitiudinal layer- distance, when contracts shortens organ

functions for segmentation/ mixing and peristalsis direction movement from mouth to anus and forms sphinters to prevent backflow

78
Q

what is the serosa of the GI tract made of

only the visceral peritoneum

A

loose areolar connective tissue and single layer of squamous epithelium

79
Q

what is the adventitia, made of, and where is it?

A

it is the outer layer around the esophagus outside of the abdominopelvic cavity instead of the serosa and is made of dense fibrous connective tissue to connect the esophagus to surrounding stuctures

Animal Nutrition and Physiology (9 decks)

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