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Exam prep Flashcards

1
Q

How did Niagara falls form? When? In which direction?

A

How: erosion (streams and rivers)
When: 12000 Pleistocene
Composition: Harder dolostone on top, softer shale on bottom (this is easily eroded) makes clift

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2
Q

What are the cement minerals?
lithification process?

A

Cement minerals:
Calcite, quartz,
clay minerals, hematite

Cements are precipitated by
groundwaters that pass
through the pores and
fractures in rock

he calculated $ of a quartz of clay

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3
Q

grand canyon
When?
How?

A

When: 5-8 mill other parts 55-70mill Precambrian
Plateau top is flat
How: errosion water

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4
Q

Diagenesis def

A

Is the sum
total of all physicals,
chemical, and biological
changes that occur to a
sediment after it is
deposited.
* Metamorphism (~300 ̊C).

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5
Q

Sedimentary structure and bedding
Varves
dark=?
light=?

A

Bedding reflects changing conditions during deposition, it can result in changes to the sediment.
Clay (winter (dark))
Silt (summer spring ( light))
Varves =ripples or layers

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6
Q

Migration of sand dunes and formation of cross bedding

A

Cross beds are created by ripple and dune migration. Sand moves up the gentle
side and piles up at the crest. Then, it slips down the steep face. The slip face
moves down-current and is buried by the next avalanche of sand. The slip faces
are preserved as cross beds.

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7
Q

Ripple marks and flow direction
symetric:
asymetrick:

A

Symmetric ripples: big lake or ocean
Asymmetric ripples:river stream shallower steap ripples

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8
Q

Mud cracks

A

Indicate alternate wet and dry terrestrial conditions a
can make casts.

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9
Q

Relative ages - Three basic principles

A

Original horizontality: all rock layers are originally laid down (deposited) horizontally and can later be deformed.
Superposition: oldest on bottom
Cross-cutting relationships: any geological feature that cuts across, or disrupts another feature must be younger than the feature that is disrupted

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10
Q

Periode

A

Quartermery
Tertiary
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
caroniferous
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Precambrian

For a quarter Tert creats jutasic terassic perms in devoni for the Silor’s ordo-cam-pre

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11
Q

Geologic time scale
Era

A

Era:
Cenzoic
mesozoic
Paleozoic
Neoproterozoic
Mesoproterzoic
Paleoproterzoic
neoarchen
Mesoarchean
Paleoarchean
eoarchean

cen(oic),mes pale, neo(ptoterzoic) meso, paleo, neo (archen), meso, pale eo

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12
Q

mass extinctions

A

Ordovician-silurian Extinction: 440 million years ago. Small marine organisms died out.
Devonian Extinction: 365 million years ago. …
Permian-triassic Extinction: 250 million years ago. …
Triassic-jurassic Extinction: 210 million years ago.
Cretaceous-tertiary Extinction: 65 million Years Ago.
Biggest mass extinction Permian
Ordo the devin perm for the triassic jurassic creature

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13
Q

Unconformities

A

Surfaces of discontinuity in
sediment deposition
* Encompass significant periods of
time (Hiatus)
* May result from non-deposition
and/or erosion
* Disconformity – separates younger
from older sedimentary strata that
are parallel to each other
(A time gap )

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14
Q

Angular unconformity

A

An erosional surface on tilted or folded rocks, over which younger sedimentary rocks were
deposited

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15
Q

Nonconformity

A

an erosional
surface cut into igneous or
metamorphic rocks and overlain
by younger sedimentary rock

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16
Q

Biochemical sedimentary rocks

A

Biochemical sedimentary rocks are made of
sediments that accumulate after the death of organisms.
* Limestone is a sedimentary rock made
almost entirely of calcite or aragonite
* Limestone often preserves the shells of fossil
organisms, sometimes in great abundance.

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17
Q

Biochemical limestone

A

Where:warm, tropical,
shallow, clear, O2-rich, marine water.
HOw: CaCO3 in limestone comes from shells from diversity of organisms

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18
Q

Dolostone is made of….

A

limestone and mg

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19
Q

Deep-marine environment
What does it make/ How?

A

Deep-marine deposits accumulate fine sediments that settle out far from
land. Fine silts and clays lithify into shale. Skeletons of planktonic
organisms make chalk or chert.

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20
Q

Oil and gas

How to make

A

Oil window=depth and temp needed for oil
Burial below oil window break down to produce natural gas
* Burial and preservation: organic-rich
shales = source rocks
* Maturation ➔ oil and gas generation
* Migration into traps
* Need an impermeable barrier to stop
migration

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21
Q

McGregor quarry rocks
Windsor salt
mine rocks

A

Quarry: Formed in the Devonian
Shallow marine
Salt mine: Silurian
Lagoon 430mya

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22
Q

The Blake Plateau

A

12km @20C/kmm= 240 C
Temp and pressure changes = sedimentary rock becomes metamorphic rock

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23
Q

The Gulf Coast Basin: Burial Metamorphism

A

15 km @ 20°C/km
300°C
Slate- low grade sedimentary rock

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24
Q

The Appalachians and orogeny
What is an orogeny
What is a sutre zone
When was it formed?

A

Orogeny- is the result of collision between two landmasses. This may occur via collision of continental crust (continent-continent collision) or when oceanic and continental crust collide (ocean-continent collision)
- Formed in Paleozoic
- Suture zone; 2 continental crust sewn together

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25
Q

Orogenies in the Appalachians

A

Alleghanian-Carboniferous
Acadian-Devonian
Taconic- Ordovician

Orogenies start with subduction

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26
Q

The Caledonian Orogeny in Europe (when)

A

(490-440 Ma)

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27
Q

The Hercynian/Variscan/ Orogeny
in Europe ( when)

A

(325-260 Ma)

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28
Q

Protolith for marble

A

Limestone

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29
Q

Contact metamorphism: andalusite vs sillimanite distribution

A

colour grain size and crystals all change with contact metamorphismSedimentary and igneous textures destroyed coarser grain size crystalline texture formsdiff minerals.
Andalusite is a common regional metamorphic mineral which forms under low pressure and low to high temperatures. The minerals kyanite and sillimanite are polymorphs of andalusite

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30
Q

Folds
how and why?

A

Folds are created in rock when they experience compressional stress. This is when the rock is being pushed inward from both sides.

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31
Q

Metamorphism in mountain belts lolok at graph

A

mudstone becomes hornfels

Shale, slate, schist Genesis magmatite more pressure more temperature
bluschist most pressure less temp
hornfels low pressure high temp

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32
Q

Foliation development
s1
s2
s3

A

Foliation is
perpendicular to the
maximum stress
direction
s1 is the maximum principal stress
s2 is an intermediate principal stress
s3 is the minimum principal stress

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33
Q

The rock cycle
Ignous=
Metamorphic
Sedimentary

A

The rock cycle involves the transformation of rocks through three main stages. Igneous rocks form from the cooling of molten magma or lava, sedimentary rocks result from the accumulation and lithification of sediment, and metamorphic rocks form from the alteration of pre-existing rocks due to heat and pressure. Each type of rock can undergo processes such as melting, cooling, weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, cementation, metamorphism, and uplift, transitioning between the different stages of the cycle continuously over geological time scales

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34
Q

Largest mass excintion

A

end of permian

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35
Q

2nd mass extinciton

A

devonian

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36
Q

Diagenesis -

A

sum of total changes that occur to sediment after it being deposited

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37
Q

Varves

A

glacier lake deposits

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38
Q

Sand dunes

A

= desert deposit

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39
Q

Succession

A

layer identify younger and older

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40
Q

The devonian in the paleozoic is suceeded by

A

CARBONIFEROUS

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41
Q

Mesozoic jurassic preceeded by the

A

triassic

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42
Q

Diatoms do form chalk
True or false

A

False

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43
Q

Chert made of…

A

sio2

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44
Q

Disconformity is a unconformity between ….

A

2 parallel sedimentary rocks

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45
Q

Traps for petrolium that are formed by folding and faulting are called

A

structural

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46
Q

Petrolum typically found in

A

sedimentary rocks as they are more porous

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47
Q

Shale is the typical source rock for

A

oil and gas

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48
Q

Conglomerate sandstone shale and limestone on top is a

A

deepening environment

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49
Q

Conglomerate sandstone shale and limestone on top is a

A

deepening envrionment

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50
Q

Blake plateau sedimenary rock are fromed in

A

late jurassic

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51
Q

The opening of the central atlantic ocean started

A

late jurassic

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52
Q

The expected temperature beneath 12 km of sedementary rocks in blake plateau

A

about 250 c cause about 20 x 12

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53
Q

imestone has …….as metamorphic counterpart

A

marble

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54
Q

Index minerals helpful to indentify

A

meta grade cause have limited rangemeta grade cause have limited range

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55
Q

Max. stress direction is

A

perpendicular to foliation plane

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56
Q

Identify migamite (mix of igneous and metamorphic) -

A

reallly flowy with black and white layers

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57
Q

When was the taconic (aka caledonian in europe) orogeny (1st) –

A

ORDOVICIAN

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58
Q

Acadian – happened

A

late devonian early caboniferous

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59
Q

SHALE -is a metamorfic rock formed by contact with

A

Hornfelds

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60
Q

Cantact meta of shale does create non foliated quarzite
T or f

A

F

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61
Q

High grade contact meta of shale does create gneiss cause equal pressure
True or false

A

False

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62
Q

Alleghanian orogeny

A

late carboniferous to late permian

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63
Q

Mudtsone does turn into a slate, then schist as it undergoes metamorphims in a contact aureole

True or false

A

False
(NO FOLIATION IN CONTACT METAMORPHISM) it will make hornfeld

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64
Q

Blue shist occurs in

A

high P low T subduction zone metamorphism

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65
Q

Blueshist is product of regional

A

metamorphism (subduction zones occur on regional schal)

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66
Q

Metamorphism of shale –

A

Slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss, migmatite

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67
Q

Foliated rock platy are aligned perpendicular to

A

max stress (sigma 1)

68
Q

Foliation develops in a plane that is parallel to

A

sigma 2 and 3 (perpendicuar to sigma 1)

69
Q

Non-Foliated metamorphic rocks

A

Marble, quartzite, coal, Amphibolite eclogrie

70
Q

Foliated rocks with increasing metamorphic grade (non foliated)

A

Slate phyllite schist geneiss

71
Q

Progressive metamorphic shale
Index minerals and metamorphic grade

A

Index miners mean they have a specific pressure conditions
Shale will change to slate, then to phyllite, schist and gneiss then magmatite
look at graph on slide 15

72
Q

Grade of metamorphism

A

= metamorphic grade is an isograd

73
Q

Migmatites

A

High grade metamorphic rock (a mixture with metamorphic and igneous)

74
Q

Regional
metamorphism

A

Index minerals indicate
the metamorphic grade
of a rock and make useful
maps that define
metamorphic zones.

75
Q

Metamorphism and natural resources

A
76
Q

The origin hydrosphere and atmosphere

A

All water on Earth is part of the hydrosphere
* More than 97% in the oceans
* Sources of water:
* Meteorite and comet impacts
* Volcanic outgassing

77
Q

Chicxulub crater, Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

A

Meteorite is ~10 km in diameter
* Crater is ~ 180 km across
* 66 Ma - end of the Cretaceous
* Extinction of 75 % of Earth’s species
* Dinosaurs whipped out (most recent)

78
Q

Sudbury impact structure: evidence

A

Impact breccia and
pseudotacylite Shatter cones
Pseudotachylite
Fallback breccia (ejecta)

79
Q

Manicouagan Crater, Quebec

A
  • Formed ~ 214 Ma (Late Triassic)
  • Made by a 5 km-wide
    meteorite
  • About 100 km in diameter
80
Q

Meteor (Barringer) Crater, Arizona
50,000 years

A

“Local” seismic activity
Ejecta added to atmosphere
Crater = 1.2 km in diameter
Meteorite ~ 50 m in diameter
Cañon Diablo

81
Q

Relative age of craters

A

look at images on last slides
bigger = older
superimposing = younger

82
Q

3 types of metiiorite

A

Stony (including chondrite)
* Stony-iron
* Iron

83
Q

The formation of the Moon

A

Thea crashed into earth
4.5 billion years ago

84
Q

Inner planets

A
  • closer to sun
  • silicate crusts and mantels with iron nickle core. Atmospheres thin or not there
  • mercury venus earth (most dense 5.5 and biggest) mars
85
Q

outer planets

A

Jupiter (biggest 143884) , saturn uranus neptune (most dence)
- mostly hydrogen and helium gases liquid and ices with small rock and iron cores

86
Q

The origin and composition of the Earth

A
  • There is a frostline past this line hydrogen compounds rocks and metals condence before they stay vaporized
  • planetary accretion took place within a strong temperature and
    pressure gradients generated by the early Sun.
  • As a result, the more volatile elements comprising the solid particles of the nebula
    evaporated in the inner, hotter portion of the nebula
87
Q

Universe and geology

A
  1. Nebular cloud contracts dust and gas.
  2. nebular forms rotating disk
  3. Dust accelerates into large masses
  4. Gas rich planets accelerate in the outer disk
  5. Rocky planetesimals forme in inner disk
88
Q

Chemistry of the Milky Way and
the Solar System

A

Most abundant elements:
Hydrogen 739,000 (73,9%)
Helium 240,000 (24.0%)
Oxygen 10,400 (1.04%)
- A nebular cloud of gas and dust
debris coalesced ~4.6 Ga from
elements produced in previous
generation stars and their
supernovae.

89
Q

Earth’s location in the Milky Way Galaxy

A

27 000 light years

90
Q

Rules for what makes planets

A

A planet must orbit a star,
be roughly spherical in
shape, and clear its
neighborhood of other
objects
- pluto fails #3

91
Q

When did the solar system form?

A

The solar system formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a collapsing cloud of gas and dust.

92
Q
  • What is the origin of the composition of the planets?
A

The composition of the planets was determined by the materials present in the solar nebula and the conditions under which they formed.

93
Q
  • How did the Earth become layered?
A

The Earth became layered through planetary differentiation, with heavier materials sinking towards the core and lighter materials rising towards the surface.

94
Q
  • Where did water come from?
A

Water on Earth likely originated from a combination of sources, including materials present during Earth’s formation and delivery by comets and asteroids.

95
Q
  • How and when did life begin?
A

The exact origins of life on Earth, which likely began around 3.5 to 4 billion years ago, remain uncertain, but hypotheses suggest it arose from simple organic molecules undergoing chemical evolution.

96
Q

Continental Crust

A

25-85km
Average 30-40
metamorphic igneous rocks
similar composition to diorite
solid except magma

97
Q

oceanic crust

A

5-25 km normally up to 10
mafic igneous rock (basalt and gabbro)
solid except magma

98
Q

Mantel

A

2900
ultramafic igneous rock

99
Q

Core

A

Outer 2255- iron and nickel liquide
Inner 1215 solid

100
Q

Earths crust

A

Of these, oxygen and silicon
account for 74.3% by weight

101
Q

Earth interior

A

Iron and oxygen dominate.

102
Q

Earth’s interior
p and s waves

A

Uper mantel:P and s
Lower mantle: Pand s
outer core: P
inner core: p and s

103
Q

the core

A

Consists of liquid outer and solid
inner core
* S-wave shadow zone
* S-waves do not arrive at
seismometers between 103°
and 180°.
* S-waves do not travel through
liquids.
* Solid inner core discovered by Inge
Lehmann in 1936.
* P-waves reflect off a boundary
within the core.

104
Q

The core-mantle boundary

A

P-waves do not arrive at
seismometers between 103° and
143° from the epicenter, due to
refraction of waves entering a
material that slows their
velocity.

105
Q

The Mantle (top 2900 km)
Aluminous minerals

A

Plagioclase
* Shallow (< 30 km)
* Spinel
* 30-80 km
* Garnet
* 80-400 km
* Si (IV) → VI coordination > 400 km

106
Q

Structure of the mantle

A

Low velocity zone (LVZ) occurs beneath
oceanic crust from 100–200 km.
* Below LVZ, under oceans, and
throughout mantle under continents,
seismic-wave velocity increases with
depth.
* Upper mantle: above 660 km
* Lower mantle: below 660 km
* Transition zone: 410–660 k

107
Q

The Crust-Mantle
boundary (Moho)

A

crust: slow mantel fast

108
Q

When a ray hits a boundary between two different materials, the ray can undergo:

A

Reflection: bounce off the boundary
* Refraction: bending as it passes through the
boundary

109
Q

P wave velocities

A

Different types of rock have
different seismic velocities
crust and mantel rock = fastest (peridotit)
air slowest

110
Q

Seismic waves
wave front vs seismic ray

A

Wave front: boundary between the
rock through which a wave has
passed and the rock through which
it has not passed.
* Seismic ray: changing position of an
imaginary point on a wave front
Swaves only work in solid
p works in both

111
Q

Oceanic crust is thinner than continental crust and has a different composition
T or f

A

T

112
Q

The lower part of the continental crust tends to be more….than the upper.
Basic structure of Earth
Early view of Earth’s interior

A

mafic

113
Q

The Great Sumatran earthquake
December 26, 2004

A

Magnitude: 9.2
1500 km of fault rupture moved at ~ 8000
km/hr
largest in 40

114
Q

What caused the Tohuko, 2011, Earthquake?

A

Sudden movement in the subduction zone associated with the deep-sea Japan Trench

115
Q

Magnitude and intensity

A

Intensity:(severity of damage
observed in the field)
magnitude: (amount of ground motion measured on a seismograph)
* The Modified Mercalli Intensity scale
is a subjective determination that
assigns Roman numerals to differing
degrees of damage.
Damage intensity
decreases with distance from the
epicenter

116
Q

Moment magnitude

A

M0 is estimated by examining the
records from seismograph
Seismic moment (Mo) = μ( rock strength x ruptured area x
displacement (slip in m)

117
Q

Magnitude
diff scales

A

Richter scale (ML)—best near epicenter
* Surface-wave scale (MS)—shallow only
* Body-wave scale (mb)—deeper only
* Moment magnitude scale (MW)—most
accurate
* Magnitude scales are logarithmic

118
Q

Seismic body waves: S-waves

A

S-waves travel by moving material back and forth, perpendicular to the wave-
travel direction.
* S-waves are slower than P-waves, and they travel only through solids, never
liquids or gases.
Seismic body waves: S-waves

119
Q

P waves

A

P-waves travel by compressing and expanding the material parallel to the wave-
travel direction.
* P-waves are the fastest seismic waves, and they travel through solids, liquids, and
gases.

120
Q

The focus (or hypocenter) is the location where
….. occurs.

A

fault slip .It is usually on a fault surface

121
Q

….is the land surface directly above
the hypocenter.

A

epicenter

122
Q

What is an earthquake?

A

An earthquake is vibration of
the ground due the release of
energy in response to sudden
break of earth’s crust

123
Q

Where does earthquake energy come from?

A
  • Elastic strain acumulated from movement of the lithosphere
  • When the stress reaches the
    yield strength of the crust, the
    rocks break.
124
Q

How to calculate the rate of plate motion

A

Rate: Displacement/Age

125
Q

Strike-slip faults
Sinistral Dextral

A

Sinistral: Left lateral—opposite block moves to observer’s left.
Dextral:Right lateral—opposite block moves to observer’s right

126
Q

What is found in southern california

A

San Andreas Fault

127
Q

Types of strain/deformation

A

Elastic strain occurs if rocks return to
their original shape when the stress is
released.
* Rocks will deform elastically until
they reach the elastic limit unless the
force is applied quickly
* Plastic strain occurs when rocks fold
or fracture when stress is applied and
do not recover their original shape
* Fracture: Rocks break

128
Q

Fracture strain =

  • Flow strain =
A

brittle deformation.
ductile deformation

129
Q

Earthquake distribution

A

Earthquakes mainly occur around the Pacific Ring of Fire, along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, in the Himalayan Region, and continental rift zones like East Africa. These zones encompass locations such

130
Q

The San Andreas Fault Zone

A

The San Andreas fault
cuts continental crust,
the Pacific Plate moves
northwest relative to
the North American
Plate.
transform plate boudry

131
Q

India and Asia collision

A
  • Collisions and suturing
    During its long journey north, India moved 15 to 20
    cm per year; however, around 50 million years ago, its
    rate of movement decreased markedly as it collided
    with the Eurasian plate.
    India and Asia collision
132
Q

Supercontient

A

Pangea
discovered by Alfred Wegner
end of paleozoic

133
Q

Shear stress

A

Shear develops when surfaces slide past one another.
* Shear stress neither thickens nor thins the crust.

134
Q

Metamorphic facies

A

A metamorphic facies is a set
of mineral assemblages that
indicate a certain range of P
and T conditions.
Metamorphic facies
Table

135
Q

Earthquakes between …. are major earthquakes

A

7-7.9

136
Q

Great earthquake

A

between 8 and 9

137
Q

L waves are s waves that intersect the land surface.
t or f

A

t

138
Q

The focus is

A

is the location where fault slips occurs during an earthquake

139
Q

left lateral strike slip

A

What does that look like

140
Q

Right lateral strike slip describe

A

one on which the displacement of the far block is to the right when viewed from either side.

141
Q

The magnitude of the 1964 Alaska earthquake was

A

9.2

142
Q

The 1906 San fran earthquake was caused by a

A

continental transform fault (san andres fault)

143
Q

Which waves are the best described as compressing and expanding to material parralel to its own-

A

P waves

144
Q

Earthquakes are not randomly placed they mostly accrue ….

A

accrue on plate boudries

145
Q

When 2 plates slide past each other on a vertical flat surface this is called a

A

transform boundry

146
Q

What does the magnitude of an earthquake measure….

A

the energy released

147
Q
  1. The east anatolian fault zone has a right lateral relative sense of motion-
    T or f
A

false - left lateral

148
Q
  1. The north Anatolian fault zone has a right lateral fault zone
A

(true)

149
Q

Inside earths interior temperature ….. with depth

A

increases

150
Q

S waves can …. travel through liquids

A

not

151
Q

Outer core =
core=

A

liquide inner
solid

152
Q

The transition zone is located at the depth of =

A

410-660km

153
Q

P-waves travel faster in perdotite than iron
t or f

A

t (velosity at core mantel boundry goes down).

154
Q

Pwaves travel …. in basalt than perdotit

A

slower

155
Q

The LVZ is located …. the lithosphere

A

beneth

156
Q

Spinel is stable at the depth of …

A

30-80kM

157
Q

P waves do not arrive between…. from earths epicenters

A

103 and 143

158
Q

P waves speed up as they enter the iron core -

A

False

159
Q

2ed most abundant element

A

oxygen

160
Q

3ed most abundant element is

A

si

161
Q

Why is pluto not a planet

A

has not cleared orbit of debris

162
Q

what planet has the highest density

A

neptune

163
Q

lowest density planet

A

mars

164
Q

2ed most aboundant element is

A

H

165
Q

oldest object in solar system

A

condrite

166
Q

oldest creater

A

bigger faded on bottom

Rocks rock! (5 decks)

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