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biology gcse triple > Paper 1 - B1-4 - Cognito Notes > Flashcards

Paper 1 - B1-4 - Cognito Notes Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the structure of both an animal and plant cell contain?

A

Cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, ribosomes

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2
Q

What does the structure of a plant cell have which an animal cell doesn’t?

A

Cell wall, vacuole, chloroplasts

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3
Q

What is the purpose of the cell membrane?

A

Controls which substances can pass in and out of the cell

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4
Q

What is the purpose of the nucleus?

A

Contains genetic material / DNA

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5
Q

What is the purpose of the cytoplasm?

A

Where chemical reactions takes place

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6
Q

What is the purpose of the mitochondria?

A

Provide cells with the energy they need to function

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7
Q

What is the purpose of the ribosomes?

A

Site of protein synthesis

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8
Q

What is the purpose of the cell wall?

A

Made up of cellulose, provides support and structure to cell

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9
Q

What is the purpose of the vacuole?

A

contains cell sap

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10
Q

What is the purpose of the chloroplast?

A

Site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll

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11
Q

What does the structure of a prokaryotic bacterial cell contain?

A

Cell wall, cell membrane, ribosomes, cytoplasm, NO NUCLEUS - DNA is contained in circular strand floating in cytoplasm

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12
Q

What does the structure of some bacterial cells contain?

A

Plasmids (Extra genes for antibiotic resistance), flagella (propels the bacteria allowing movement)

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13
Q

What does the light source of a microscope do?

A

reflects light through the stage and lenses

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14
Q

What does the stage of a microscope do?

A

where microscope slide is placed

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15
Q

What does the objective lens of a microscope do?

A

changes the magnifcation

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16
Q

What does the eyepiece lens of a microscope do?

A

has a fixed magnification

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17
Q

What does the coarse/fine focusing knob of a microscope do?

A

focuses image of microscope

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18
Q

In terms of microscopy, what is an object?

A

the real object/sample you are looking at

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19
Q

In terms of microscopy, what is an image?

A

how the object is seen when looking through a microscope

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20
Q

How does a light microscope work?

A

light reflects through the stage and the object, passes through both lenses (which spread out light rays) and hits our eyes

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21
Q

What is magnification?

A

how many times larger an image is compared to the object

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22
Q

What is the equation for magnification?

A

magnification = image size / object size

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23
Q

What is resolution?

A

measure of a how detailed an image is

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24
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a light microscope?

A

✔️easy to use, relatively cheap ✖️resolution is limited due to reliance on light

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25
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of an electron microscope?

A

✔️use electrons instead of light which improves max resolution ✖️very expensive, hard to use

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26
Q

What are specialised cells?

A

cells that make up who we are, they have a purpose and adaptations to fulfill said purpose

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27
Q

What are some examples of specialised cells?

A

(for animals) muscle cells, sperm cells, nerve cells (for plants) root hair cells, phloem cells, xylem cells

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28
Q

What is differentiation?

A

the process by which a cell changes to become specialised

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29
Q

What are the conditions needed for bacterial growth?

A

warm temperature, good nutrient availability, moist conditions, presence/absence of oxygen

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30
Q

Why are nutrient broth and agar jelly used for the growth of bacteria?

A

they are both nutrient-rich substances, which is good as bacteria need a mixture of nutrients to reproduce

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31
Q

What are some aseptic technqiues for preventing contamination?

A

cleaning surfaces with disinfectant, washing hands in antiseptic soap, sterilising all instruments/solutions/mediums, growing in incubators set to a maximum of 25°C

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32
Q

How do you calculate the area of zones of inhibition? (where an antibiotic works against bacteria, aka that one annoying question that we ALWAYS get wrong)

A

area = pi x radius squared (area of a circle)

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33
Q

What are specialised exchange surfaces?

A

parts of an organism over which they exchange substances with their environment

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34
Q

What are some examples of specialised exchange surfaces in both plants and humans?

A

humans have alveoli in lungs for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, plants have root hair cells and leaves for water and carbon dioxide absorption from soil and air respectively

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35
Q

WHat are the 5 main features of specialised exchange surfaces?

A

large surface area, surfaces are very thin, surfaces are permeable, good supply of blood, good supply of external medium

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36
Q

What is mitosis?

A

cell division where chromosomes split to form two daughter cells

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37
Q

What are the steps of the cell cycle?

A

Cellular growth - cell gets larger, produces more organelles -> DNA replication - chromosomes duplicate -> Mitosis - chromosomes split to opposite sides of the cell -> cytokinesis - cell divides to form two identicall daughter cells

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38
Q

What are the two key features of stem cells?

A

they are divisible by mitosis to form more cells, they are able to differentiate into specialised cells

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39
Q

What can an embryonic stem cell do and what are some examples?

A

differentiate into any type of cell (e.g. nerve, skin, red blood cell)

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40
Q

What can an adult stem cell do and what are some examples?

A

can divide by mitosis but only differentiate into types of blood cells (e.g. platelets, white/red blood cells)

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41
Q

Where are plant stem cells found and what do they do?

A

found in meristems, will differentiate to phloem + xylem, palisade, root hair cell

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42
Q

How are stem cells used to treat conditions caused by faulty cells?

A

extracting embryonic stem cells from early embryos, growing them in lab, stimulating them to differentiate into specialised cells

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43
Q

What are some of the issues of using stem cells in medicine?

A

the need of embryonic stem cells (limited supply + ethical concerns), rejection of stem cells due to different genomes (can be mitigated with immunosuppressants)

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44
Q

What is binary fission?

A

process in which prokaryotic organisms like bacteria divide and reproduce (asexual reproduction)

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45
Q

How is binary fission not like mitosis/meiosis?

A

Mitosis/meiosis happens in eukaryotic cells, binary fission in prokaryotic

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46
Q

What is the process of binary fission?

A

(1) grow (2) replicate genetic material (3) dna moves to both sides of cell (4) cell wall start to grow down middle (5) cells pull apart when cell wall is fully grown

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47
Q

What is diffusion?

A

net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, can happen in both gases and liquids

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48
Q

Diffusion can takes place across a partially permeable membrane. What’s that?

A

a membrane where only some molecules can diffuse through (e.g. water, glucose, amino acids)

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49
Q

What is a concentration gradient?

A

difference in concentration between 2 places (e.g high c.g. = high diffusion rate)

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50
Q

What are some factors that affect diffusion?

A

temperature (higher temp. = higher diffusion rate), Surface area (larger surface area = higher diffusion rate)

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51
Q

What is osmosis?

A

the net movement of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of higher water concentration, to a region of lower water concentration

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52
Q

What is water concentration?

A

amount of water compared to other molecules that are dissolved in the water

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53
Q

What is active transport?

A

the movement of molecules across a cell membrane, from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, requiring energy from cellular respiration

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54
Q

How does active transport work in root hair cells?

A

root hair cells in the roots of plants absorb water and mineral ions (needed to survive in soil) thanks to its long hair-like protrusions

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55
Q

What is the surface area to volume ratio and what does it show?

A

how big surface area is VS how big volume is, as organisms get larger the ratio decreases

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56
Q

Bacteria has a high surface area to volume ratio. What does this mean?

A

it allows bacteria to rely on diffusion for exchange

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57
Q

Humans have a low surface area to volume ratio. What does this mean?

A

It means humans require specialised exchanges systems

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58
Q

What are organelles?

A

essential components of a cell which serve specific functions (e.g. nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria)

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59
Q

What are cells?

A

come in various shapes and sizes using various combinations of organelles (e.g. specialised cells)

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60
Q

What are tissues?

A

group of similar cells that work together to carry out a particular function

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61
Q

What are organs?

A

group of different tissues that work together to carry out a particular function

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62
Q

What are organ systems?

A

group of organs that work together to carry out a particular function

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63
Q

What are organisms?

A

multiple organ systems working together

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64
Q

What are enzymes?

A

biological catalysts which increase the speed of a reaction without being changed or used up in the process, large proteins which can fold up to create a unique enzyme

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65
Q

Enzymes have an active site which is complementary to the substrates. If the substrate doesn’t fit, what happens?

A

The reaction will not be catalysed, showing how specific enzymes are about which reactions they speed up

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66
Q

What is the lock and key model for enzymes?

A

initially scientists thought the substrate had to fit perfectly into the active site, therefore comparing it to a lock and key

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67
Q

What is the induced fit model for enzymes?

A

the active site being complementary to the substrate (the enzyme changes shape slightly as it binds to the substrate)

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68
Q

How does temperature affect enzymes?

A

High temperatures break the bonds that hold enzymes together as the active site starts to change shape. if it changes shape enough, it would be able to bind to the substrate and become denatured

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69
Q

How does pH affect enzymes?

A

Some bonds will start to break, the active site starts to change shape (substrate will fit but less well. if it changes shape enough, it would be able to bind to the substrate and become denatured

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70
Q

What is bile and what is its function?

A

bile is a digestive enzyme which helps with the digestion of lipids as it emulsifies them increasing their surface area for lipase to break them down

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71
Q

What digestive enzyme breaks down carbohydrates?

A

by amylase into maltose

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72
Q

Where is amylase made in the body?

A

salivary glands, pancreas, small intestines

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73
Q

What digestive enzyme breaks down proteins?

A

by protease into amino acids

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74
Q

Where is protease made in the body?

A

stomach, pancreas, small intestines

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75
Q

What digestive enzyme breaks down lipids?

A

by lipase into glycerol and fatty acids

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76
Q

Where is lipase made in the body?

A

pancreas, small intestines

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77
Q

What does the digestive system do?

A

breaks down food into tiny pieces so the body’s cells can absorb them, which is reliant on physical and chemical breakdown

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78
Q

Where are carbohydrates found and what are they used for?

A

found in starchy foods, provide energy for chemical reactions and movement

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79
Q

Where are lipids found and what are they used for?

A

found in oily fish + nuts + seeds + avocados, provide energy and insulation

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80
Q

Where are proteins used for?

A

building blocks for tissue growth and repair

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81
Q

Why are carbohydrates and lipids essential?

A

for maintaining proper bodily functions

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82
Q

How are vitamins and mineral ions similar?

A

there are lots of different types of each and we only need them in small amounts

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83
Q

How are vitamins and mineral ions different?

A

vitamins are organic molecules, minerals are inorganic and simpler

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84
Q

What are some examples of vitamins?

A

Vitamin A (found in liver + leafy vegs, for good vision, healthy skin + hair), Vitamin C (found in fruit + vegs, for preventing scurvy), Vitamin D (can be made in body via sunlight, found in eggs, oily fish, etc., for absorbing calcium)

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85
Q

What are some examples of mineral ions?

A

Calcium (found in dairy products + leafy vegs, for strong bones), iron (found in red meats/spinach/beans, imortant component of haemoglobin, could lead to anaemia with too little)

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86
Q

Where is fibre found and what is it used for?

A

found in wholemeal foods + fruits + vegs, helps food move through intestines properly

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87
Q

Where is water found and what is it used for?

A

found in drinks + foods like strawberries and oranges, needed for chemical reactions and maintaining the body’s water concentration (lost through sweating, breathing, urinating)

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88
Q

What are carbohydrates made from and what breaks them down?

A

made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen atoms and come in different sizes (smallest being simple sugars - monomers), broken down by enzymes in the mouth and small intestine

89
Q

What are proteins made from and what breaks them down?

A

made up of longs chains of amino acids bonded together, enzymes in the stomach and small intestine break down proteins into amino acids

90
Q

What are lipids made from and what breaks them down?

A

contain a single glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid molecule, and their length and structure determine whether a lipid is a fat or an oil

91
Q

How do you prepare foods for food tests?

A

breaking it down with mortar and pestle > put crushed food in beaker w/ distilled water > mix w/ glass rod until dissolved > filter mixture so any solid chunks are removed

92
Q

What does the Benedict’s test test for?

A

reducing sugars

93
Q

What is the process of the Benedict’s test?

A

Transfer 5cm cubed of food sample into test tube > set water bath at 75°C > add 10 drops of benedict’s solution > place in water bath for 5 mins > check solution for reducing sugars > Solution changes color based on concentration. (blue = no, green/yellow/brick red = yes)

94
Q

What does the iodine test test for?

A

starch

95
Q

What is the process of the iodine test?

A

Take 5 cm cubed food sample in test tube > Add iodine solution, turning it browny-orange > Gently shake test tube to detect starch > Solution changes to blue/black if present

96
Q

What does the biuret test test for?

A

proteins

97
Q

What is the process of the biuret test?

A

Add 2cm cubed food sample and then 2cm cubed biuret solution to test tube > Gently shake to mix > If proteins present, solution turns pink/purple

98
Q

What does the sudan III test test for?

A

lipids

99
Q

What is the process of the sudan III test?

A

Take 5 cm cubed food sample in test tube > Add 3 drops to test tube > Gently shake > if lipids present, stained with bright red layer

100
Q

What is the function of the lungs?

A

Air enters the body through the nose/mouth through trachea into lungs dividing between two bronchi, dividing into bronchioles, and alveoli for gas exchange.

101
Q

How are alveoli adapted for their function?

A

single thin layer increasing diffusion rate of carbon dioxide and oxygen due to a shorter pathway, very large surface area, moist walls allowing gases to dissolve increasing diffusion rate, good concentration gradient between the alveoli and blood capillary.

102
Q

What is the equation for breathing rate?

A

Breathing rate = no. of breaths taken / no. of mins

103
Q

What is the circulatory system?

A

an example of organ system - its roles is to transport oxygen and nutrients to our body’s tissues

104
Q

What does the circulatory system rely on?

A

blood (carries oxygen + nutrients), blood vessels (holds blood), heart (pumps blood around body)

105
Q

What do the lungs receive and pass around the body in the circulatory system?

A

receive deoxygenated blood from the heart, blood gains oxygen and is sent back to heart

106
Q

What does the rest of the body receive and pass around the body in the circulatory system?

A

receive oxygenated blood from heart, blood loses oxygen and goes back to heart

107
Q

How are heart diagrams viewed?

A

As if you were looking at someone (right side on your left, etc.)

108
Q

What are the top sections of the heart called?

A

Atria (atrium singular)

109
Q

What are the bottom sections of the heart called?

A

Ventricles

110
Q

What do valves in the heart do?

A

prevent blood flowing backwards, ensuring that it always flows in the right direction

111
Q

How frequent is the cycle in the heart?

A

around 70 times a minute, over 100k times a day

112
Q

What keeps the cycle in the heart steady and how?

A

a group of cells in the right atrium acting as a pacemaker, producing small electrical impulses that spread through muscular walls of heart causing them to contract

113
Q

What is used if the pacemake cells do not work?

A

artificial pacemaker can be implanted which has a wire that passes electrical impulses to the heart, replacing the faulty cells

114
Q

What is an artery?

A

a vessel that carries blood at high pressures away from the heart

115
Q

What is the size of an artery? (wall + lumen)

A

thick muscle/elastic tissue wall, narrow lumen

116
Q

What is a capillary?

A

a vessel that exchanges nutrients (amino acids, glucose) + oxygen w/ tissues, takes away waste products (carbon dioxide) from arteries

117
Q

What are the conditions of a capillary?

A

Lower blood pressure, blood flows slowly, gives blood more time to exchange things with tissues

118
Q

What is the size of a capillary? (wall + lumen)

A

single cell thick wall (permeable), tiny lumen - overall really small

119
Q

What is a vein?

A

a vessel that carries blood back to the heart from capillaries

120
Q

What are the conditions of a vein?

A

low pressure, with valves to prevent blood flow backwards

121
Q

What is the size of a vein? (wall + lumen)

A

small layer of elastic fibres + smooth muscle wall, biggest lumen

122
Q

What is the equation for the rate of blood flow?

A

how much blood has flowed / time it took (e.g. ml/min)

123
Q

What are red blood cells and what do they do?

A

make up half of our blood by volume, red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues for cellular respiration. They contain haemoglobin, which combines with oxygen that diffuses into cells when travelling around body

124
Q

What are some adaptations of the red blood cell?

A

no nucleus (more space for haemoglobin + oxygen), shaped like a biconcave disk (large surface area for absorbing oxygen)

125
Q

What amount of the blood do white blood cells make up?

A

1% of our blood - still essential part of immune systems, defending us against infection

126
Q

What are the three ways white blood cells protect us against pathogens?

A

Phagocytosis (blood cell will engulf pathogen), antibody production (binds onto pathogens, helping destroying them), antitoxin production (neutralises any toxins)

127
Q

In what way are white blood cells unlike red blood cells?

A

White blood cells have a nucleus, red blood cells don’t

128
Q

What are platelets?

A

NOT CELLS so no nucleus - small fragments of cells that float about in the blood

129
Q

What do platelets do?

A

When the body gets a cut, they flow to said cut and patch it up like a glue (clotting), preventing blood flowing out and microorganisms coming in

130
Q

What does blood plasma do?

A

Makes blood watery so it can flow, carries everything (red/white blood cell, platelets, glucose, amino acids, waste products (Co₂, urea), hormones, proteins, antibodies, antitoxins)

131
Q

How can blood be replaced?

A

blood transfusion (gives real blood from donor - all necessary components are there), artificial blood (salt water, adds volume to circulatory system (keeps vessels full and allows heart to keep pumping, no red blood cells - only replaces a third of blood)

132
Q

What is coronary heart disease?

A

when coronary arteries get clogged up due to fatty material narrowing the lumen, reducing the blood flow and oxygen reaching the heart, straining the heart leading to heart attacks

133
Q

How can coronary heart disease be treated?

A

stents - expandable tube inside artery (✔️quick surgery, lasts a long time ✖️ risks of surgery and blood clot near stent), statins - medication altering cholestrol balance in bloodstream (✔️controls cholesterol levels to healthy level✖️taken regularly, side effects)

134
Q

What is faulty valves?

A

not enough blood can pass through / valve doesn’t close properly

135
Q

How can faulty valves be treated?

A

Replacement valves - either biological (human/pig/cow etc), or mechanical valve. Both require surgery and have the risk of blood clots

136
Q

What is heart failure?

A

can’t blood pump, only proper treatment = new heart

137
Q

How can heart failure be treated?

A

Replacement hearts - either biological or artificial. Artificial are usually a temporary fix, while biological are more long lasting and effective. (pig/cow can be used)

138
Q

How can health be defined?

A

a state of physical + mental wellbeing

139
Q

What factors can affect a person’s health?

A

diet, stress, exercise/sleep, access to medical care

140
Q

What is a disease?

A

conditions that can cause ill health

141
Q

What are the two types of disease?

A

communicable + non-communicable

142
Q

What are communicable diseases?

A

from person to person, pathogens (viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi), examples (common cold, malaria, meningitis)

143
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

not spread between people, examples (asthma, coronary heart disease (CHD), diabetes, cancer

144
Q

What are some examples of risk factors for non-communicable diseases?

A

Coronary heart disease (obesity, smoking), Diabetes (obesity), cancer (air pollution, smoking, asbestos exposure, radiation exposure, obesity)

145
Q

What are some risk factors for non-communicable diseases to point out?

A

smoking (toxins can damage blood vessels walls and alveoli), alcohol consumption (liver disease, smoking + drinking while pregnant can affect baby), obesity (poor diet, lack of exercise, can lead to type 2 diabetes)

146
Q

What are tumours?

A

TUMOURS ≠ CANCER, abnormal mass of cells created by uncontrolled growth and cell division

147
Q

What are the two types of tumours?

A

Benign (group of cells contained with one area surrounded by membrane, stay in one place) and malignant (considered to be cancerous, moves about, can form secondary tumours in process causing a lot of damage to body)

148
Q

What are some risk factors for cancer?

A

smoking (lung/mouth/stomach/cervical cancer), obesity (bowel/liver/kidney cancer), UV exposure (sun + sunbeds, skin cancer), alcohol (liver cancer), genes (BRCA specifically, breast/ovarian cancer)

149
Q

What is the function of a leaf?

A

site of photosynthesis, requires a lot of carbon dioxide and water, water comes from the soil which is transported to the leaves via roots + xylem, Carbon dioxide diffuses directly from outside air through holes under the leaf

150
Q

What is translocation?

A

the movement of sugars in plants from the leaves to other parts of the plant via phloem tubes

151
Q

What is transpiration?

A

the movement of water and mineral ions from roots to leaves for use in photosynthesis via xylem tubes

152
Q

What is a pathogen?

A

Microorganism that can cause disease

153
Q

What are the four pathogens?

A

bacteria, viruses, protests, fungi

154
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

disease that can be spread from person to person

155
Q

What are some of the ways that pathogens are spread?

A

Air, contaminated food + drink, direct contact

156
Q

What are some ways that the spread of pathogens can be reduced?

A

Be hygenic, killing vectors (e.g. mosquitoes), vaccinations, isolation/quarantine

157
Q

What are viruses?

A

not living cells, can’t reproduce by themselves - only by using cell organelles which infects them

158
Q

What are some examples of viruses?

A

Measles, HIV, Tobacco mosaic virus

159
Q

What are bacteria (the bad ones)?

A

single-celled organism that can reproduce by themselves, produces toxins that damages our cells and tissues

160
Q

What are some examples of bacteria?

A

salmonella (eating contaminated food), gonorrhoea (example of STD)

161
Q

What are protists?

A

eukaryotes, either uni/multicellular, classable as parasites, often transported by vectors

162
Q

What are some examples of diseases caused by protists?

A

Malaria (caused by parasitic protists)

163
Q

What are fungi?

A

Eukaryotic, either uni/multicellular, multicellular have hyphae which can penetrate skin and cause disease

164
Q

What are some examples of diseases caused by fungi?

A

Rose black spot (causes black spots to form on plant leaves)

165
Q

What is a physical/chemical barrier?

A

Something that is physically/chemically in the way of pathogens

166
Q

What are some examples of physical/chemical barriers?

A

skin, nose hairs, mucus, stomach acid

167
Q

What is the main cell of the immune system?

A

white blood cells, which circulate in blood + tissues patrolling for pathogens

168
Q

What are the three ways that white blood cells protect us against pathogens?

A

Phagocytosis (blood cell will engulf pathogen), antibody production (binds onto pathogens, helping destroying them), antitoxin production (neutralises any toxins)

169
Q

How do vaccinations work?

A

contains a deactivated pathogen which white blood cells will produce antibodies for so when the body is infected by the same pathogen, it will attack the pathogen before it develops.

170
Q

What are the pathogens that vaccinations work against?

A

Viruses and bacteria

171
Q

What are the pros and cons of vaccinations?

A

PROS: protection from diseases, control of common diseases (e.g. polio, smallpox), prevents epidemics - CONS: don’t always work, bad reactions

172
Q

What are some examples of drugs that relieve symptoms of a disease?

A

Painkillers such as aspirin, paracetamol, cough medicine

173
Q

What are some examples of drugs that treat diseases?

A

antibiotics which can directly kill bacteria / prevent further growth

174
Q

What is the only pathogen that antibiotics work against?

A

bacteria

175
Q

What are the problems of taking too many antibiotics?

A

be weary you are taking the right ones + antibiotic resistance (some bacteria are “on the next level” and resist antibiotics)

176
Q

How are new medicines developed?

A

antigens + plants have evolved, creating new substances which can be used to develop medicines

177
Q

What are examples of some developed medicines?

A

aspirin (chemical found in willow tree bark), penicillin (fungus that grew on Flemming’s petri dish)

178
Q

What are the three things to keep in mind when testing drugs?

A

efficacy (how effective), toxicity (how harmful), dosage (how much)

179
Q

What are the preclinical stages of drug testing?

A

testing on human cells + tissues (can be grown in lab), testing on live animals (for efficacy + toxicity)

180
Q

What are the clinical stages of drug testing?

A

give to healthy volunteers with a low and slowly increasing dose (for dosage), given to someone suffering w/ illness (for optimum dosage + max efficacy + min toxicity)

181
Q

How do you ensure a testing process is fair and valid?

A

volunteers should be blind to drugs and given half real + half placebo - doctors could also be blind to it (double blind) which prevents bias, then peer-reviewed

182
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies?

A

a single clone of cells which then produce antibodies that are then isolated, made in laboratory

183
Q

Why are B-lymphocytes not used for monoclonal antibodies?

A

they don’t divide quickly, so they’re combined with fast-diving tumour cells to make hybridoma

184
Q

Why are hybridoma preferred for usage in monoclonal antibodies?

A

produces a lot of antibodies, divides rapidly - when left in petri dish, it leaves an army of hybridoma which produce identical antibodies which are collected and purified

185
Q

What is the process of monoclonal antibodies?

A

animal is injected with antigen we want the antibody to bind to and then we do hybridoma thing > monoclonal antibodies bind to one specific thing - with right b-lymphocyte we can create antibodies that bind to anything we want

186
Q

What are pregnancy tests?

A

a test strip that is able to detect HCG hormones in a pregnant woman’s urine, cheap way of finding out pregnancy

187
Q

What is on the test strip of a pregnancy test to allow it to work?

A

Blue beads (located where you pee, free to move, covered in antibodies specific to HCG), fixed to the test strip antibodies (also specific to HCG)

188
Q

What happens on a pregnancy test if you are not pregnant?

A

urine will wash blue beads along the strip flowing over the antibodies - nothing will result as of this

189
Q

What happens on a pregnancy test if you are pregnant?

A

HCG in urine will bind to blue bead antibodies which will then flow over fixed antibodies and HCG will cause beads to bind to fixed antibodies resulting in a blue line (most have 2 - for functionality proof + pregnant proof)

190
Q

How can we tell a plant has a disease?

A

take basic observations and match to symptoms in a gardening manual (for example) or send to a plant pathologist

191
Q

What are some examples of physical plant defences?

A

waxy cuticle, cellulose cell walls, layer of dead cells (e.g. bark)

192
Q

What are some examples of chemical plant defences?

A

anti-microbial, poisons, drugs derived from plants

193
Q

What are some examples of mechanical plant defences?

A

thorns, hairs, leaves that curl of droop

194
Q

What is photosynthesis?

A

the absorption of light by chlorophyll in the chloroplast of a leaf

195
Q

What is the word equation of photosynthesis?

A

carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen

196
Q

What is the symbol equation of photosynthesis?

A

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

197
Q

What are the five reasons plants want glucose?

A

cellular respiration, cellulose (strengthen cell walls), starch (storage), amino acids (w/ nitrate ions = proteins), oils + fats (storage)

198
Q

How does light intensity affect photosynthesis?

A

photosynthesis rate plateaus, something else must be a limiting factor

199
Q

How does temperature affect photosynthesis?

A

Rate rises initially, then starts to drop after optimum temp due to enzymes denaturing

200
Q

How does carbon dioxide concentration affect photosynthesis?

A

photosynthesis rate plateaus, something else must be a limiting factor

201
Q

How does chlorophyll amount affect photosynthesis?

A

chlorophyll level within a plant can differ due to disease, environmental stress, or lack of nutrients

202
Q

What can be done to recreate the effectors of photosynthesis?

A

colder climates (greenhouses - including CO₂ pump for heat + CO₂, enclosed so lack of pests, farmers use fertilisers (enough nutrients), bit expensive though)

203
Q

What is the inverse square law?

A

states that the intensity of light decreases proportionally to the square of the distance from its source

204
Q

What is the formula for the inverse square law?

A

light intensity ⍺ 1/distance²

205
Q

What is cellular respiration?

A

an exothermic reaction which transfers energy from glucose and is continuously occuring in living cells

206
Q

How is energy from cellular respiration used?

A

build up larger molecules, muscular contraction (for movement), maintain body temp., for reactions (most of which are catalysed by enzymes)

207
Q

What is metabolism?

A

all chemical processes in an organism to maintain life

208
Q

What is aerobic respiration?

A

more common respiration, takes place when enough oxygen and continously

209
Q

Where does aerobic respiration take place?

A

mitochondria - site of respiration

210
Q

What is the word equation of aerobic respiration?

A

Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water

211
Q

What is the symbol equation of aerobic respiration?

A

C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ -> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O

212
Q

How is aerobic and anaerobic respiration different?

A

aerobic is with oxygen, anaerobic is without oxygen

213
Q

What is anaerobic respiration?

A

less common respiration - only done when necessary (e.g. oxygen can’t keep up during vigorous exercise)

214
Q

What is the word equation of anaerobic respiration?

A

glucose -> lactic acid

215
Q

What is the word equation of anaerobic respiration in plants + yeast?

A

glucose -> ethanol + carbon dioxide#

216
Q

Why does our body need to carry out more aerobic respiration during exercise?

A

exercise requires more muscle movement, lung muscle contraction, oxygen pumped around body leading to heart mucle contraction - all of which requires energy from aerobic respiration

217
Q

Why does our body carry out anaerobic respiration during exercise?

A

if exercise gets too intense, there will be a lack of oxygen - anaerobic is the best option even though lactic acid is produced which causes a burning sensation

218
Q

How can we investigate the effects of exercise on our body?

A

breathing rate (how many times chest rises + falls in given amount of time (1 min)), heart rate (measure pulse w/ flacid on any artery in wrist/neck)

biology gcse triple (10 decks)

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