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Anatomy and physiology > lymphatic system > Flashcards

lymphatic system Flashcards

1
Q

lymphatic system

A

consists of lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs

**closely associated with the cardiovascular system

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2
Q

lymphatic vessels/system

A

take up extra tissue fluid and return to to the blood stream

lymphatic capillaries absorb fats and transport them to the blood stream

lymphatic system helps with immunity to defend the body against disease

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3
Q

flow of lymphatic capillaries

A

the lymph flows one way

from lymphatic capillary system to the subclavian veins –

Where it joins Venous circulation to return to the heart

fluid begins in the interstitial fluid between the cells

most BUT NOT ALL of the fluid is returned to the heart via the veins of the cardiovascular system

fluid that is not returned through the veins of the cardiovascular system enters the lymphatic capillaries and flows into a lymphatic vessel

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4
Q

Lymphatic capillaries

A

lymphatic capillaries are closely connected to the capillaries of the cardiovascular system

lymph capillaries take up plasma fluid, which under great pressure, has been forced out of the capillaries of the circulatory system and has not been reabsorbed

this fluid bathes the cells assisting the capillaries with delivering oxygen, glucose, salts, amino acids, and other nutrients

excess tissue fluid entering the lymphatic capillaries is now called LYMPH

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5
Q

Lymph

A

excess tissue fluid entering the lymphatic capillaries is now called lymph

lymph flows from the lymphatic capillaries into larger lymphatic vessels until it eventually empties into venous blood of the cardiovascular system

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6
Q

Lymphatic vessels

A

extend throughout most sections of the body

have a one way flow valves similar in structure to the large veins of the cardiovascular system

the valves prevent back flow of lymph

the return of the lymph fluid into circulation is solely dependent on the squeezing action of skeletal muscles

**squeezing fluid one way through the lymphatic vessels

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7
Q

thoracic duct

A

All the lymphatic vessels merge before entering the venous circulation at either the thoracic duct (aka left lymphatic duct) or the right lymphatic duct, both located in the region on the human body

lymph then flows from the thoracic duct into the left subclavian vein (of the cardiovascular system

the right lymphatic duct drains into the right subclavian vein of the cardiovascular system.

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8
Q

Larger thoracic duct

A

the larger thoracic duct drains from both lower extremities, the abdomen, the left arm, the left side of both the head and neck

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9
Q

Right lymphatic duct

A

is smaller than the thoracic duct

the smaller right lymphatic duct is smaller and drains fluid from the right arm, the right side of both neck and head, and the right thoracic region

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10
Q

lymphoid organs

A

including the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, and tonsils

the body has hundreds of lymph nodes which are found at junctions of lymphatic vessels

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11
Q

lymph node

A

is encapsulated in a fibrous connective tissue with many incoming and fewer outgoing lymphatic vessels

acts as a filtering center which rid the flowing lymph of infectious organisms and other debris as it passes through a series of sinuses (cortical, subscapular, medullary

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12
Q

Incoming vessels

A

Afferent vessels

flow through a network of sinuses that contain cells

a lymph then flows out of the lymph node through the efferent vessel

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13
Q

Efferent vessels

A

the lymph flows out of the incoming vessel and flows out of the lymph node through the efferent vessel

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14
Q

nodules

A

the anterior of the lymph node id divided into open spaces called nodules, containing lymphocytes and macrophages

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15
Q

Axilla (armpit) and groin

A

lymph nodes tend to be grouped together in regions of the body, particularly the axilla and groin regions

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16
Q

The spleen

A

in the upper left abdomen. The spleen functions to extract old or defective blood cells and platelets

the spleen also removes debris, foreign matter, bacteria, viruses, and toxins from blood that flows through it

encapsulated in a thin, fragile fibrous connective tissue with an incoming splenic artery and an outgoing splenic vein

interior divided into open spaces called lobules

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17
Q

lobules

A

the interior of the spleen is divided into open spaces called lobules containing lymphocytes and macrophages that carry out the functions of the spleen

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18
Q

splenic artery

A

blood enters the spleen via the splenic artery

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19
Q

splenic vein

A

blood leaves via the splenic vein

which flows to the hepatic portal vein (also called hepatic portal system)

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20
Q

hepatic portal vein

A

the hepatic portal system carries blood drained from the veins of the spleen, intestines, stomach, and pancreas to liver

the hepatic portal vein transports blood in to the liver where it is detoxified before returning to the general circulation

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21
Q

thymus gland

A

is located on the anterior surface of the heart

the thymus secretes thymosin and thymopoietin hormones which enable T lymphocytes to mature and function as part of the immune system

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22
Q

What does the thymus gland secrete

A

thymosin and thymopoietin - both of these enable T lymphocytes (T cells to mature) and function as part of the immune system

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23
Q

What do T cells do?

A

mature t cells attack body cells, which are cancerous or infected with pathogens

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24
Q

When is the thymus most prominent?

A

thymus is most prominent in newborns and becomes larger during childhood when it is most active. Growth of the thymus stops in adolescence and then glands withers away to a mass of fibrous fatty tissue by old age

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25
Q

Tonsils

A

a group of small lymphoid organs in the lateral, posterior portions of the throat

tonsils gather and destroy bacteria inhaled in food and air

lymphoid tissue of the tonsils have is invaginated by channels called crypts which trap bacteria and foreign matter

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26
Q

Crypts

A

lymphoid tissue of the tonsils is invaginated by channels called crypts which trap bacteria and foreign matter

The bacteria then work their way into the lymphoid tissue where most are destroyed.

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27
Q

non-specific immune system

A

innate immune system

serves as first line of defense through chemical and physical barriers to prevent pathogens from entering the body

the response is the same to ALL threats that attempt to enter the body

It is a generalized defense that rapidly destroys large numbers of pathogens

These are quick compared to specific immunity which takes several days to work

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28
Q

specific immune system (adaptive immune system)

A

takes several days to activate

the specific immune system is targeted and extremely effective against pathogens

The main lymphocytes involved in the specific immune responses are B and T cells

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29
Q

The skin and the lymphatic system

A

The skin is part of the innate (non-specific) immune system

very few pathogens can penetrate the intact human skin

tears and sweat produce an environment on which only good bacteria can grow, called normal flora

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30
Q

normal flora

A

beneficial bacteria that produce lactic acid, which inhibits pathogenic (disease causing) bacteria

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31
Q

how does the stomach and respiratory system deal with pathogens

A

microorganisms entering the stomach are destroyed by stomach acids and digestive enzymes and digestive secretions

pathogens entering the respirtory system are trapped by muscus membranes and then brought up to the throat to be spit out or swallowed and killed in stomach acid

32
Q

inflammatory response

A

part of the non-specific immune system

inflammatory response is a localized response in the tissue. Inflammation increases blood flow to infected regions causing swelling

33
Q

swelling-

A

tissue swelling dilates blood vessels in the infected area to help increase the number of immune cells responding to the infection

the increase of blood also causes redness and pain, helping bring a conscious awareness of the infection

34
Q

cytokines

A

circulate within the blood, which are not cells but rather secreted proteins

cytokines help regulate and signal both the specific and non-specific immune systems.

35
Q

what are the two main groups of cytokines

A

Interluekins and interferons

Interferons - Inhibit viral replication and assist in activating Natural killer cells

Interleukins - functions as chemical activators, sending signals throughout the body to increase the immune response

there are many subtypes of interleukins that function to activate different types of immune cells

36
Q

pyrogens

A

a subtype of interleukin called pyrogens reset the thermostat in the hypothalamus - the temperature set-point (homeostasis) is raised to create a fever

37
Q

Fevers

A

fevers help the body fight infection by interfering with the growth and replication of pathogens

Fevers also cause lysosomes to breakdown -the lysosomes release digestive enzymes that lyse (destroys) a cell affected by a virus

fevers can promote the activity of white blood cells

mild fevers with a short duration can assist in recovery

38
Q

white blood cells

A

aka leukocytes are divided into two major categories - agranulocytes and granulocytes

granulocytes have granules in the cytoplasm

agranulocytes do not carry granules

39
Q

ganulocytes

A

have granules in the cytoplasm

include neutrophils, esioinophils, basophils

all granulocytes are capable of phagocytosis

40
Q

neutrophils

A

are the most abundant white blood cell

neutrophils are responsible for fighting infections, especially those that involve bacteria

neutrophils use phagocytosis to the ingestion of foreign materials

it can recognize a pathogen by its cell surface receptors

the neutrophil binds to the pathogen and brings it inside the cell forming a vacuole

Have a short lifespan

41
Q

vacuole and neutrophils

A

the neutrophil binds to the pathogen and brings it inside the cell forming a vacuole

the vacuole fuses with cells lysosomes, which release digestive enzymes to destroy the pathogen

once the pathogen is destroyed the contents is released from the cell

42
Q

phagocytosis

A

phagocytosis protects the body by engulfing and destroying pathogens

neutrophils have a short life span and die quickly after the pathogen is ingested

43
Q

neutrophils life span and outcomes

A

neutrophils have a short life span and die quickly after the pathogen is ingested

after death neutrophils exit the body as pus (white fluid)

44
Q

neutrophils under the microscope

A

have multi lobed nucleus and when stained have light pink granules in their cytoplasm

45
Q

eosinophils

A

respond to allergic reactions and parasitic infections. They are similar in appearance to neutrophils, except their granules stain a darker pink to red

are less commonly seen -because we are not always fighting off a parasitic infection

as a granulocyte, eosinophils are also capable of phagocytosis

46
Q

basophils

A

are the rarest type of granulocyte and are also capable of phagocytosis

these are involved in the release of histamines and heparin

histamines are a vasodialator, which increase blood flow through the dilation of vessels and capillaries

heparin is a blood anticoagulant which helps prevent the formation of blood clots

have a similar morphology shape to neutrophils and eosinophils, but their granules stain dark purple/blue

47
Q

monocytes

A

monocytes are a type of agranulocytosis

monocytes- are large white blood cells with a u shaped/kidney shape nucleus

these can move into tissues and are then called macrophages -monocytes and macrophages are the greatest phagocytes of all the blood cells

these are more effective than neutrophils because they live longer and have greater phagocytic ability

48
Q

Three major types of lymphocytes

A

T cells, B cells , and natural killer cells

the specific immune response depends on the activity of lymphocytes.

lymphocytes functions include making antibodies, attacking foreign cells, and destroying body cells that have lost normal function

have dark nucleus with little cytoplasm

main lymphocytes involved are B and T cells

49
Q

B cells

A

millions of B cells (bone marrow derived) are produced in bone marrow daily

Each B cells is genetically programed to produce a glycoprotein receptor as part of its cell coat

each receptor binds with a specific type of antigen

an antigen is any molecule that can be specifically recognized as foreign by the immune system.

B- cells become activated when an antigen binds with its receptor -then called plasma cell

50
Q

plasma cell

A

Once activated a B cell is called a plasma cell and begins to rapidly divide

51
Q

antibodies (immunoglobulins)

A

each plasma cell produces antibodies (immunoglobulins) , which is a soluble form of glycoprotein receptor from B cells surface

there are 5 categories of immunoglobulins

52
Q

5 types of immunoglobulins

A

IgG, IgE, IgD, IgM, IgA

these are the 5 major types of immunoglobulins released by B cells, each with a different purpose in the body

53
Q

what happens after an antibody is released?

A

the antibody binds to the invading antigen to cause it to be inactive or mark it for destruction

phagocytes (cells able to carry out phagocytosis can identify the marked cell and engulf it through phagocytosis

54
Q

memory B cells

A

some activated B cells become memory B cells, which continue to produce a small amount of antibody even after the infection is over

if the same pathogen enters the body again, the antibody immediately binds with the antigen

they can produce a specific antibody much faster and targets it for destruction at a much faster rate the second time a pathogen invades the body

55
Q

anti-body mediated immunity

A

b-cells work in this method called anti-body mediated immunity (humoral response).

This defends the body against pathogens through the secretions of antibodies

the antibodies bind to the pathogen, making it unable to cause further damage in the body marking it for phagocytosis

56
Q

T cells

A

thymus dependent cells

originate in bone marrow but mature in the thymus gland

T-cells work through what is called cell-mediated immunity

57
Q

cell mediated immunity

A

Instead of using antibodies, cell mediated immunity releases contents such as cytokines or enzymes to kill a pathogen or infected cell

cell mediated immunity also includes direct cellular action, such as phagocytosis by other white blood cells

58
Q

antigen receptors

A

T-cells contain antigen receptors that bind to a specific glycoproteins in cell membranes

59
Q

Killer T-cells

A

aka cytotoxic T cells -recognize and destroy invading cells containing foreign antigens

killer T cells attack virus-infected cells or cells infected with cancer cells by releasing cytokines and enzymes locally to lyse the cell

60
Q

helper T cells

A

secrete substances that activate or enhance immune responses

B cells require an interaction with helper T cells before they can begin rapid division

61
Q

Natural killer cells

A

also originate in the bone marrow. Natural killer cells seek out abnormal body cells and destroy them

This makes NK cells highly effective against tumor cells

62
Q

major histocompatabilty complex (MHC)

A

the glycoprotein surface receptors on all the cells of the body are called MHC

The MHC enables the immune system to determine what cells are the body’s cells and what cells are foreign.

cells of the body also have a way od displaying through MHC complex if there’s is something abnormal within the cell (such as cancer)

killer T cells (cytotoxic T cells) recognize and destroy invading cells through this self or not self recognition of the MHC complexes on each cell

63
Q

T cells and antigen receptors

A

T cells contain antigen receptors that bind to specific glycoproteins in cell membranes.

Each person has a genetically unique surface cell receptor present on all the cells of the body in the cell membranes

64
Q

Graft rejection

A

is the rejection of a transplanted organ by an organ donor

tissue grafts and organ transplants most often originate from another person’s body

The MHC on the surface of the graft are recognized by the host body as a foreign pathogen

an identical twin can donate to a sibling without any complications

however, most people will need immune suppressant drugs

65
Q

immune surprenant drugs

A

these are given after a graft or organ transplant to suppress the immune system

this is necessary so that the body does not reject the organ transplant or tissue graft

while taking these drugs a person is more susceptible to disease and illnesses

66
Q

Autoimmune disease

A

When lymphocytes launch an attack against a person’s own body it is called an autoimmune disease

this occurs when antibodies and T cells attack the body’s own tissues

ex. rhumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis

67
Q

rheumatoid arthritis

A

T cells attack the synovial lining inside joints

T cells produce interleukins, which cause inflammation inside the joints systemically (body wide)

68
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

an autoimmune disease where antibodies attack and or prevent formation of the myelin sheath around nerve cells resulting in muscular weakness

69
Q

allergic reactions

A

in allergic reactions antibodies are produced against mild antigens called allergens

these allergens are typically common in the environment factors such as pollen, or dust mites

many people that display allergies have some type of genetic predisposition to this type of body reaction.

allergic reactions vary from person to person but generally have red/watery eyes, sneezing, runny nose, and headache

70
Q

anaphylaxis

A

an excessive immune response to an allergen, called aniphylaxis

a severe life threatening allergic reaction against a pathogen, insect reaction, or drug

antibodies are overproduced by B cells

these circulating antibodies increase capillary permeability throughout the body

Some symptoms include hives and anaphylaxis shock, narrow respirtory pathways, causing difficulty breathing

71
Q

hives

A

raised red bumps

72
Q

anaphylactic shock

A

a person’s capillaries become so dilated it causes their blood pressure to drop too low, leading to collapse

A person can die from anaphylactic shock because their heart stops beating or their airway passages completely close, so the person can no longer breathe.

73
Q

epinephrine auto injector

A

people who have severe allergic reactions should always carry an epipen

when aniphylactic shock begins to occur the epipen is injected into the thigh to release the hormone epinephrine into the bloodstream

epinephrine helps to offset the symptoms of anaphylaxis, constricting blood vessels and raising blood pressure

74
Q

edema

A

an accumulation of too much fluid in tissues can cause localized swelling called edema

75
Q

lymphedema

A

lymphodema is a specific form of edema where the lymphatic system is not functioning properly to return fluid back to circulation

a lymph vessel can become blocked, or lymph nodes can be removed for testing causing difficult with lymph drainage

the interstitial fluid slowly accumulates in the limb and it becomes extremely swollen and distended

lymphedema can become a serious condition if left untreated because the swollen tissues are vulnerable to infection.

if left untreated the connective tissues and vessels become permanently stretched and distended

76
Q

tonsilitis

A

inflammation of the tonsils. The tonsils become infected and appear white or bacterial infection

Anatomy and physiology (15 decks)

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