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Biology AS > 2.3 a - Adaptations for transport in animals > Flashcards

2.3 a - Adaptations for transport in animals Flashcards

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1
Q

Features of a transport system

A

suitable medium to carry materials ( blood)
pump for moving the blood
valves - to prevent backflow of blood
(unidirectional blood flow(
Respiratory pigment ( in vertebrates) but not in insects
a system of vessels, arteries, veins + capillaries

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2
Q

Open circulatory system?

A

blood does not move in vessels but the tissues bathe directly in a haemocoel
( cavity filled with blood)
has long dorsal tube shaped heart
runs the entire length of a body
pumps blood at low pressure into the haemocoel materials are exchanged ( co2 + O2) between blood and body cells
blood slowly to the heart
(not efficient)
O2 diffuses directly to the tissues to the spiracles (inwards) and tracheoles (outwards)

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3
Q

Closed circulatory system?

A

Blood moves in vessels
2 types single and double
single - blood moves through heart once for example fish
ventricle of heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills
pressure falls
oxygenated blood carried to the tissues and deoxygenated returns to the atrium of the heart
not an efficient system
wait for blood to leave then come back

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4
Q

Double circulatory system?

A

blood passed through the heart twice in a complex circuit
mammals have a closed double circulatory system
a muscular heart under high pressure pumps blood rapidly through the vessel
organs = not in direct contact with the blood
but are bathed in tissue fluid ( glucose + oxygen)
passed into cells becoming CO2 + waste
Blood pigment = haemoglobin

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5
Q

Why is blood returned to the heart?

A

blood pressure is reduced in the lungs and wouldn’t be high enough to circulate through the rest of the body instead, blood = returned to the heart to raise its pressure, before being pumped to the body

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6
Q

Pulmonary?

A

right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery
oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart

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7
Q

Systematic?

A

left sided of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to the tissues via the aorta
deoxygenated blood from body returns to the left side of the heart

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8
Q

In each circuit?

A

blood passes through the heart twice once on right and once on the left

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9
Q

Structure + function of blood vessels?

A

arteries + veins have 3 layered structure
proportions = different
inner most layer
endothelium
1 cell thick
surrounded by tunica intima - smooth , reduces friction
minimum resistance to blood flow
middle layer = tunica media contains smooth muscle + elastic fibres
In artery, tunica media is thicker sa contains more elastic fibres to accommodate blood flow at high pressure
when elastic tissue stretches, it recoils and can be felt as a pulse
when smooth muscle contracts, it regulates blood flow
outer layer, tunica externa - contains collagen fibres to resist stretching

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10
Q

Length of artery?

A

10mm - 1cm

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11
Q

Length of vein?

A

6 mm

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12
Q

length of capillary?

A

0.02 mm

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13
Q

Function of artery?

A

carry blood away from the heart
thick muscular wall withstand pressure
arteries branch into arterioles which subdivide into capillaries

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14
Q

Function of vein?

A

has a large lumen
thinner walls with less muscle
lower pressure + flow rate
veins above the heart rely on gravity to return the blood to the heart
veins below the heart are reliant on traction of muscles to pump blood back to the heart if no movement occurs, blood pools, causing deep vein thrombosis

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15
Q

function of capillaries?

A

forms a vast network which penetrates all tissues
blood from capillary collects in venules and is transferred to veins before returning to heart

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16
Q

Structure of capillaries?

A

thin walls with one layer of endothelium cells on a basement membrane
there are pores between the cells that make the capillary walls permeable to water and solutes
capillaries have a smaller diameter which decreases flowrate
decreasing flow rate facilitates exchange of materials with tissue fluids

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17
Q

The heart has 2 pumps?

A

1 - systematic
1 - pulmonary

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18
Q

What’s the difference between them?

A

one deals with oxygenated blood whilst the other deals with deoxygenated

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19
Q

What’s the structure?

A

2 atria
thin-walled chamber
2 ventricles - thick-walled pumping chambers to separate oxygenated from deoxygenated blood

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20
Q

What is the heart made of?

A

made of cardiac muscle
myogenic

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21
Q

What is the structure and properties of the heart?

A

between skeletal and smooth muscle
cells have stripes but lack long fibers
contracts rhythmically without nervous stimulation or hormonal control

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22
Q

Myogenic def?

A

never tires

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23
Q

What happens during embryonic development in mammals?

A

the 2 separate pumps grow together to form 1 overall structure

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24
Q

Cardiac cycle def?

A

the sequence of events in one heartbeat which lasts 0.08s in an adult
consists of 2 alternating contractions which are
systole
diastole

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25
What are the 3 stages?
atrial systole ventricular systole diastole
26
Atrial systole?
atrial walls contract blood pressure increases blood forces the tricuspid and bicuspid valves to open, and blood flows into the ventricles
27
tri?
right
28
bi?
left
29
Ventricular systole?
ventricle walls contract blood pressure increases blood = forced upwards through the semi-lunar valves ( crescent moon-shaped) forced through semi-lunar valves to the pulmonary artery + and the rest of the body
30
Pulmonary artery?
only artery carries deoxygented blood blood cannot flow backwards valves prevent backflow of blood
31
Aorta?
only artery that has valves preventing backflow of blood
32
What does a rise in ventricular pressure cause?
tricuspid + bicuspid valves to close
33
Diastole?
ventricles relax volume increases pressure decreases which would cause backflow - pressure's drops prevented by the semi lunar valves atria relac, allowing blood from vena cava + pulmonary veins enters atria
34
Blood moving through the heart?
1)left atrium relaxes to receive oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein 2) when atria = full, pressure forces bicuspid valve open 3) left ventricle relaxes, allowing blood to flow from the atrium 4) left atrium contracts, expelling remaining blood 5)left atrium relaxes + bicuspid valve closes left ventricle contracts due to strong muscular wall which exerts high pressure 6) pressure pushes blood out of the heart through the semi lunar valves into the aorta bicuspid closes to prevent backflow of blood
35
Summary?
2 sides of the heart simultaenously Atria contracts almost at the same time Ventricles contract milliseconds later heart beat is 1 complete contraction and relaxation sound made by a beating heart =lub dub created by the atrioventricular valves and the semi lunar valves if chamber = contracting, its emptying if chamber = relaxing,its filling left ventricle = thicker than right, muscular to pump blood around the body semi lunar valves close under high pressure - due to the contraction
36
SAN? ( sino arial node
area of the heart muscle in the right atrium that initiates a wave of electrical excitation across the atria to generate contraction of the heart muscle known as a pacemaker
37
AVN?
atrioventricular node right in the septum of the heart
38
SAN?
cluster of specialised cardiac cells from which a wave of excitation spreads over both atris so they contract almost simultaneously
39
Ventricles?
insulated from the atria by a thin layer of connective tissue
40
Only at the AVN?
allows conduction as there is no connective tissue in it creates a delay between atrial and ventricular contractions allows the muscles of the atria to finish contracting before the muscles of the ventricle contract
41
What does AVN pass?
excitation down the septum which contains nerve fibres in the bundle of His until the apex of the heart is reached excitation is transmitted to purkinje fibres which carry the impulse up and the ventricles contract simultaneously blood is forced into the aorta and the pulmonary artery
42
ECG?
electrocardiogram difference in charge trace of voltage changes
43
P wave?
voltage change generated by the SAN ( contraction of atria) ( only small ) ( not height peak) aria have less muscle than ventricles so p = small
44
PR interval?
time taken for excitation to spread from the atria to the ventricles through the AVN
45
QRS?
Depolarisation + contraction of the ventricles ventricles have more muscle so amplitude of the wave = greater
46
T wave?
repolarization of ventricle muscles isoelectric line = baseline of the trace
47
Analysing an ECG?
heart rate can be calculated from the trace by reading the horizontal axis If person has an atrial fibrillation ( rapid heart beat ) lack of a P wave a person having a heart attack has a wide QRS complex Person with enlarged ventricles - QRS complex has a greater voltage change Person with blocked coronary arteries or atherosclerosis change in the height of the T wave and the ST segment
48
Calculating heartbeat?
find difference between times 1.15 - 0.3 0.85 bpm = 60/0.85 = 71 bpm
49
Where is the blood pressure the highest?
highest in aorta + larger arteries ( rises + falls rhymthically with ventricular contraction)
50
Why is there a drop in pressure?
friction between blood + the walls of the vessels causes a progressive drop in pressure, especially in arterioles + capillaries due to large surface area
51
Where is blood pressure the lowest?
reduced in capillary beds as fluid leaks from the capillaries to the tissues As distance from heart increases, the blood pressure decreases + the speed of veins do not experience pressure changes as they are not affected by ventricular attraction
52
In veins?
pressure is always low as it has a wide lumen blood returns to the heart by massaging effect of muscles on the veins
53
Blood composiiton?
blood is a tissue made of cells ( 45 % ) other 55 % = plasma
54
Red blood cells?
erthyrocytes contain haemoglobin to transport oxygen - pigment from lungs to respiring tissue biconcave shape - dip in middle increases surface area for diffusion has a thin centre which makes them look pale in the middle makes diffusion faster no nucleus - has been pushed out as it matures this maximises oxygen transport
55
White blood cells?
leukocytes larger than erythrocytes 2 types granulocytes have granular cytoplasm + lobed nuclei phagocytic - eats stuff/inhales
56
Agranulocytes?
have a granular cytoplasm / no grams clear nucleus = spherical non phagocytic produce antibodies + antitoxins
57
Plasma?
pale yellow liquid 90 % water contains glucose, amino acids, vitamin B, vitamin C, minerals, water HCO3, hormones and plasma proteins Albumin + blood clotting proteins
58
Main purpose of plasma?
to distribute heat
59
Transportation of Oxygen equation?
Oxygen + haemoglobin --- Oxyhaemoglobin 4O2 + Hb ----- Hb ---- Hb.4O2
60
Affinity def?
the degree to which 2 molecules are attracted to each other
61
What does affinity actually mean?
haemoglobin can change its affinity for oxygen by changing its shape Hb - readily associates with oxygen in the alveoli Disassociates from oxygen in respiring tissues ( muscle)
62
Co-operative binding def?
the increasing ease with which Hb binds to the second and third oxygen molecule as Hb changes shape
63
Structure of Hb?
each Hb molecule has 4 haem groups, each one has Fe2+ Oxygen can bind to each iron ion 1st O2 attaches + changes the shape of Hb to make it easier for the second to attach the 2nd O2 molecule changes the shape for the third to attach the third does not induce a shape change, so the partial pressure of O2 must increase significantly to bind the 4th
64
Partial pressure def?
concentration of O2 in one place
65
Normal atmospheric pressure?
100 kPa
66
Partial pressure of Oxygen?
21 kPa - 21% in the air when Hb - exposed to increase partial pressure, the graph would appear to be linear ( not actually linear ) (would have been if picked up the same way for each one
67
What shape graph does co-operatives binding produce?
a sigmoid curve graph
68
Stages 1,2,3 and 4 meaning?
1)difficult to load O2 2+3)O2 binding = easier 4)only occurs at high partial pressures
69
Adult haemoglobin?
oxygen affinity of haemoglobin is high at higher partial pressures of oxygen Oxyhaemoglobin does not release oxygen at high partial pressures of oxygen oxygen affinity decrease as the partial pressure decreases instead of Oxygen is released to meet the respiratory demand
70
Respiratory demand?
relationship between oxygen partial pressure + saturation of oxygen not linear
71
Where do red blood cells load oxygen?
in the lungs where the oxygen pressure is high
72
Hb?
saturated with oxygen
73
Cells?
carry oxygen but in the form of oxyhaemoglobin to respiring tissues such as muscle
74
Muscle tissue?
a low partial pressure caused in respiration when oxyhaemoglobin unloads oxygen it disassociate
75
Equation for it?
Hb.4O2 ----- Hb+4O2 splits in the haemoglobin + oxygen
76
Foetal haemoglobin
Hb of a foetus must absorb oxygen from maternal haemoglobin at the placenta foetus has haemoglobin which differs in 2 of the 4 polypeptides 2 alpha and 2 delta instead of 2 alpha and 2 beta
77
What does this do?
gives a greater affinity of oxygen at the placenta, blood flow of the mother + the foetus are close but never mixed
78
How is oxygen transferred?
to the foetus but the % saturation of the foetus = higher than the mothers so oxygen disassociated curve shifts to the left
79
How much oxygen is released and taken in?
21% of 02 = taken in by the moher 16% is released 5% of circulating
80
Worms?
lug worms live head down in the burrow In the sand on the shore in a low oxygen environment Low metabolic rate Low Oxygen requirement Haemoglobin loads Oxygen readily as it has a high affinity for oxygen curb is to the left of the adult
81
Llamas?
live at high altitude where there is a low partial pressure of oxygen and haemoglobin has a higher affinity so curve is to the left of the foetus myoglobin is further to the left
82
Seal?
has 8 alpha helicases in the myoglobin
83
The bohr effect def?
movement of the oxygen disassociation curve to the right at high partial pressure of Carbon dioxide because at a given oxygen partial pressure Haemoglobin - lower affinity for oxygen
84
Effect of CO2 concentration?
If concentration increases, Haemoglobin releases Oxygen more readily at any Oxygen, partial pressure Haemoglobin = less saturated with oxygen, so all data points on the curve is lower
85
Shifts in Graphs position?
the bohr effect + explains the unloading of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin into respiring tissues where partial pressure of CO2 = high
86
Summary?
when Hb is exposed to an increase in Oxygen partial pressure, it absorbs Oxygen rapidly at low partial pressure but slowly as partial pressure increases
87
When Oxygen partial pressure is high in the lungs?
Oxygen combines with Hb to form Hb.4O2
88
When partial pressure of Oxygen is low
Oxygen disassociates from Hb.4O2
89
Chloride shift ( 9 marker)
90
Tissue fluid diagram labelled?
arteriole blood capillary venule vein lymph vessels which drain into thoracic duct body cell lymph capillary artery
91
Why does pressure decrease?
due to large surface area of capillary bed
92
Tissue fluid def?
plasma without plasma proteins too large to diffuse into the capillary
93
Structure of a capillary?
thin permeable walls large surface area for exchange blood flows very slowly to allow time for exchange of materials
94
Movement through the capillary wall?
fluid from the plasma = forced through the capillary wall as tissue fluid
95
What is tissue fluid used for?
bathes body cells supplying them with glucose amino acids fatty acids salt hormones oxygen
96
What does it do?
removes waste that is made by cells for example CO2
97
What is diffusion reliant on?
on the hydrostatic pressure of the blood and its solute potential
98
Arterial end of the capillary bed?
blood is under high pressure due to the pumping of the heart artery + arteriole walls shows muscular contraction high hydrostatic pressure forces tissue fluid into the capillary plasma has a low solute potential due to colloidal proteins so water flows back into the capillary by osmosis High hydrostatic pressure forces water and solutes into the body cells Body cells metabolise using glucose and oxygen so the concentration falls
99
Kwashiorkor?
protein deficiency causes oedema ( swelling of cells with water)
100
Venus end of capillary bed?
Hydrostatic pressure - low because fluid has been lost so plasma proteins = more concentrated in the blood because water has been moved into the body cells Solute potential of the remaining plasma is more negative, pulling water back into the capillary by osmosis tissue fluid around the cells picks up CO2 + diffuses increase a concentration gradient into the capillary ( 90% ) + (10%) drains into the lymph vessel which is taken to the thoracic duct which empties into the subclavian vein

Biology AS (12 decks)

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