302: Biological Principles for Pharmacy Technicians Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
What type of molecule is a carbohydrate?
A
A carbohydrate is a sugar.
2
Q
What is the general formula of carbohydrates?
A
Cm(H2O)n
CnH2nOn
3
Q
Which three elements make up carbohydrates?
A
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
4
Q
What is a monosaccharide?
A
A monosaccharide is a one-unit sugar.
5
Q
What is a disaccharide?
A
A disaccharide is a two-unit sugar joined by a glycosidic bond.
6
Q
What is a polysaccharide?
A
A polysaccharide is a sugar chain with many sugar units joined by glycosidic bonds.
7
Q
What are glycosidic bonds?
A
A glycosidic bond is a covalent bond that links sugar molecules, or a sugar molecule to a different group.
8
Q
What is the main function of carbohydrates?
A
The main function of carbohydrates is to provide the body with energy.
9
Q
What type of carbohydrate is glucose?
A
- simple sugar
- most abundant monosaccharide
10
Q
What type of carbohydrate is fructose?
A
- simple ketonic monosaccharide
- has a 5 member ring
11
Q
What type of carbohydrate is sucrose?
A
- sucrose is formed from a disaccharide of glucose and fructose
- table sugar is refined from sucrose
12
Q
What type of carbohydrate is maltose?
A
- maltose is a disaccharide formed from 2 glucose molecules joined with an α(1-4) linkage
13
Q
What type of carbohydrate is starch?
A
- starch is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of nurmerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds
- used by most green plants for energy storage
14
Q
What is the molecular formula of glucose?
A
C6H12O6
15
Q
What is the molecular formula of fructose?
A
C6H12O6
16
Q
What is the molecular formula of sucrose?
A
C12H22O11
17
Q
What is the molecular formula of maltose?
A
C12H22O11
18
Q
What is the molecular formula of starch?
A
(C6H10O5)n - (H2O)
19
Q
What are the three main types of carbohydrates?
A
- monosaccharide
- disaccharide
- polysaccharide
20
Q
What are examples of monosaccharides?
A
- glucose
- fructose
- galactose
21
Q
What are examples of disaccharides?
A
- maltose
- sucrose
- lactose
22
Q
What are examples of polysaccharides?
A
- starch
- glycogen
- cellulose
23
Q
How many carbons are there in the nucleic acid sugars deoxyribose and ribose?
A
Deoxyribose and ribose are both pentose sugars, which means they have 5 carbons.
24
Q
Draw a glycosidic bond/condensation reaction.
What is lost in a condensation reaction?
A
25
Which sugars make up lactose?
Lactose is a **disaccharide** of **glucose** and **galactose**.
26
Which is the most common polysaccharide?
**Starch** is the most common polysaccharide.
27
Which constituent molecules make up starch?
Starch is made from **amylose** and **amylopectin**.
28
What type of reaction is the breaking down of carbohydrates into their constituent products?
(catabloic/anabolic)
Breaking down carbohydrates into monosaccharides is a **catabolic** reaction.
29
Are saturated fats solid or liquid at RTP?
Saturated fats are **solid** at RTP.
30
Are unsaturated fats solid or liquid at RTP?
Unsaturated fats are **liquid oils** at RTP.
31
What are triglycerides made from?
Ester of glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains
32
Where are triglycerides commonly found?
Triglycerides are the main constituent of **body fats** and **vegetable fats**. They are in **skin oils** and are found in the **blood** (transport of fat and glucose).
33
What are phospholipids?
* major components of cell membranes
* forms lipid bilayers
* two fatty acid 'tails' (hydrophobic)
* phosphate 'head' (hydrophilic)
34
What are the main functions of lipids?
* energy source
* insulation
* protection
* comprise cell membranes
* structure to the cell wall in plants
* cellular communication
35
What is the general structure of lipids?
Lipids are formed from **glycerol** bonded to a long chain of **hydrocarbons**.
36
What is the daily recommended consumption of saturated fats?
30g for men
20g for women
37
What are the health effects of eating an excess of saturated fats?
* raises cholesterol
* increased risk of heart disease
38
What are examples of saturated fats?
* butyric acid
* lauric acid
* myristic acid
* palmitic acid
* stearic acid
39
What is the total recommended fat allowance for adults?
70g
40
What are the health effects of unsaturated fats?
* can help lower cholesterol levels
* maintain levels of HDLs & lower levels of LDLs
41
What are examples of unsaturated fats?
* linoleic acid
* erucic acid
* myristoleic acid
* oleic acid
42
Which groups are attached to the central carbon in an amino acid?
* amine
* carboxyl
* R group
43
How many different amino acids are there?
* 22 different amino acids can be found in living organisms
* human use 20
* the other 2 are used as stop codons in some species
44
During which process are amino acids connected to one another?
Amino acids are connected to one another during **translation**.
45
Which bonds join amino acids to one another?
Amino acids are joined by a type of covalent bond called a **peptide bond**.
46
Which groups are common amino acids sorted into?
* basic
* acidic
* polar
* non-polar
47
The removal of water is what type of reaction?
**Condensation** reaction is the removal of water.
48
What is a codon?
A sequence of **three nucleotides** which together form a unit of genetic code in a **DNA or RNA** molecule.
49
What is transcription?
* DNA is transcibed to RNA
* Performed by **RNA polymerases**
* Link nucleotides to form an RNA strand, by using the DNA strand as a **template**
50
What is the primary structure of a protein?
The primary structure is the **straight chain** of amino acids that the protein consists of.
51
What is the secondary structure of a protein?
The secondary structure is when the primary chain begins to twist. Can be **alpha helix** of **beta pleated sheet**.
52
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
The tertiary structure is when the protein **folds even more** by building **disulphide bridges** between chains.
53
What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
Several amino acid chains fold together to form a glob (globular)
54
Give examples of contractile proteins.
Myosin and actin are contractile proteins.
55
Give examples of structural proteins.
Collagen, elastin & keratin
56
What does somatotropin do?
Somatotropin is a growth hormone that stumulates protein production in muscle cells.
57
What do collagen and elastin do?
Collagen and elastin provide support for connective tissues such as tendons and ligaments.
58
What is keratin used for?
Keratin strengthens protective coverings such as hairs, quils, feathers, horns and beaks.
59
Which protein is found in egg whites?
Albumin is found in egg whites
60
Milk based protein
Casein
61
Which protein transports oxygen through the blood?
Haemoglobin transports oxygen through the blood.
62
Which protein operatres in the electron transport chain as electron carrier proteins?
Cytochromes operate in the electron transport chain as electron transport chain as electron carrier proteins.
63
What determines a proteins function?
A proteins structure determines a proteins function.
64
What roles do enzymes play?
Enzymes are biologicical catalysts. They may act as:
* motors
* membrance pumps
* receptors
65
What determines an enzymes function?
An enzyme's function is determined by its complex **shape**.
66
TRUE OR FALSE
Enzymes are specific in the reactions that they catalyse.
TRUE!
Enzymes are generally specific in the reactions that they catalyse.
67
What is an enzyme without its cofactor called?
An enzyme without its cofactor is called an **apoenzyme**.
68
What is an enzyme with its cofactor called?
An enzyme with its cofactor is called an **holoenzyme**.
69
What is a cofactor?
A cofactor is a **non-protein** chemical compound or metallic ion that is required for an enzyme's activity as a catalyst
70
What is the enzyme active site complementary in shape to?
The shape of the enzyme active site is **complementary** to its **substrate**.
71
What is the lock-and-key theory of enzyme/substrates?
That a **substrate fits exactly into the active site** of the enzyme like a key fitting into a lock.
72
What is the induced-fit theory of enzyme-substrate complexes?
* the active site of the enzyme is slightly '**flexible**'
* only the proper **substrate** is capable of **inducing the proper alignment** of the active site that will **enable the enzyme** to perform its catalytic function
73
What is competitive inhibition of an enzyme?
In competitive inhibition, an **inhibitor** that **resembles the normal substrate** binds to the enzyme, usually at the **active site**, and prevents the substrate from binding. At any given moment, the enzyme may be bound to the inhibitor, the substrate, or neither, but it **cannot bind both at the same time**.
74
What is non-competitive enzyme inhibition?
Non-competitive inhibition is a type of enzyme inhibition where the **inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme** and binds **equally well** to the enzyme whether or not it has already bound the substrate.
75
What does the limiting factor mean in terms of enzyme reactions?
The limiting factor is the thing that **limits** the rate of reaction.
76
What are factors that affect the rate of reaction?
* enzyme concentration
* substrate concentration
* temperature
* pH
* inhibitors
* activators
77
What is the optimum temperature for many enzymes?
The optimum temperature for many enzymes is **37oC**
78
How do changes in pH denature enzymes?
Changes in pH dentures enzymes by affecting the **ionic and hydrogen bonds**.
79
What is the optimum pH for amylase to function?
The optimum pH for amylase is **pH 7.2**.
80
What is the optimum pH for lipase to function?
The optimum pH for lipase to function is **9.0**.
81
Where is amylase mostly found?
Amylase is mostly found in the **saliva**.
82
What type of molecules does amylase break down?
Amylase breaks down **carbohydrates**. Breaks down the **glycosidic bonds** that hold the long chain molecules together.
83
What is the name of the group of enzymes that break down proteins?
**Proteases** break down proteins.
84
What is the name of the group of enzymes that break down fats?
**Lipases** break down fats.
85
What is an example of a protease enzyme.
**Pepsin** is a protease enzyme.
86
What is the optimum pH of pepsin and where is it found?
Pepsin's optimum **pH is 2** and it is found in the **stomach**.
87
Which drug is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase?
Methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme **dihydrofolate reductase**.
88
What is feedback inhibition?
Feedback inhibition is when the **product** of the reaction **inhibits the enzyme**.
89
Which broad group of enzymes catalyse hydrolysis reactions?
**Hydrolases** catalyse hydrolysis reactions.
90
What do transferases catalyse?
Transferases catalyse reactions involving the **transfer of atoms or groups of atoms** from one molecule to another.
91
What reactions do oxidoreductases catalyse?
Oxidoreductases catalyse **oxidation** and **reduction** reactions.
92
Give examples of nucleic acids, and explain what they are.
**DNA & RNA** are nucleic acids. They are **biopolymers** made of **nucleotides**.
93
What is the function of DNA?
* long-term storage of information
* how to make proteins and RNA
94
What is the structure of RNA?
* single-stranded
* made of ribonucleotides
* linked by phosphodiester bonds
95
Name 3 types of RNA.
tRNA (transfer)
mRNA (messenger)
rRNA (ribosomal)
96
What are the functions of RNA?
RNA converts DNA to proteins.
97
What are the base pairs for DNA?
A=T
C≡G
98
What are the base pairs in RNA?
A=U
C≡G
99
What is a codon?
A codon is a sequence of **three** DNA or RNA **nucleotides** that correspond with a specific **amino acid** or **stop codon**.
100
What is a stop codon?
Stop codons signal the **end of the polypeptide chain** during **translation**.
101
What is the general structure of a nucleotide?
102
What are the components of a DNA strand?
Phosphate backbone
bases (adenine thymine cytosine guanine)
sugar - deoxyribose
103
What are the components of an RNA strand?
single-stranded
bases -adenine uracil cytosine guanine
sugar - ribose
104
How do DNA and RNA differ?
* DNA is double stranded
* *RNA is single stranded*
* DNA contains thymine
* *RNA contains uracil*
* DNA contains deoxyribose
* *RNA contains ribose*
* In DNA a primer is needed to intiate replication
* *RNA does not require a primer*
* DNA is found in the nucleus
* *RNA formed in the nucleus then moves*
* DNA has a relatively long chain
* *RNA has a relatively short chain*
* DNA cannot leave the nucleus
* *RNA leaves the nucleus*
105
What is a gene?
A gene is a **unit of heredity** which codes for a specific product, either a **protein** or **RNA**.
106
What is a chromosome?
A chromosome is a **DNA molecule** with part or all of the **genetic material** of an organism.
107
How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have?
Humans have **23 pairs** of chromosomes.
108
What is mitosis?
* a part of the cell cycle
* replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei
* 2 daughter cells that are genetically identical
109
What is meiosis?
* cell division that produces **4 daughter cells** with **HALF** the genetic material of parent cells
* Haploid, gametes
110
What is a gene mutation?
A gene mutation is a **permanent alteration** in the **DNA sequence**.
111
What is the Sutton-Boveri theory?
* chromosome theory of inheritance
* theory that identifies chromosomes as the carriers of genetic material
* identifies chromosomes as paired factors
* states chromosomes are linear structures with genes located at specific loci
112
What does DNA mutation cause?
DNA mutation causes **evolution**.
**Random mutations** of DNA sequence due to **repeated copying** and how species evolve in their environment over time.
113
What is a chemical DNA mutation?
Molecules, which could be **food**, **drugs**, **chemotherapy**, **food colourings**, **pesticides** etc. that **bind** to or **alter** DNA or RNA, changing or stopping proteins being produced.
This could **help or hinder** the species.
114
What is a DNA mutation caused by radiation?
**Alters or breaks up the DNA strand** changing or stopping copying by mRNA.
Can be used as a treatment regimen to help stop proliferation of cancer-causing cells.
115
What is DNA mutation by microorganisms?
Microorganisms **disrupting or altering** the DNA or RNA sequence, which can **stop or alter** production of proteins (or cause different proteins to be produced).
116
Why is water biologically important for transport?
Water’s role as a **solvent** helps cells transport and use substances like **oxygen or nutrients**. Water-based solutions like **blood** help carry molecules to the necessary locations. Thus, water’s role as a solvent facilitates the **transport of molecules like oxygen for respiration** and has a major impact on the ability of **drugs to reach their targets** in the body.
117
Why is water biologically important for chemical reactions?
* **Photosynthesis**, the process in plants that creates sugars for all life forms, requires water.
* participates in **building larger molecules** in cells
* water is required for **catabolic reactions** to obtain monomers
* water acts as a **buffer** against strong acids and bases
118
Why is water biologically important for temperature control?
The cohesion of water molecules contributes to water’s **high boiling point**, which helps animals **regulate body temperature**.
119
Why is water biologically important for support?
* water fills cells to help **maintain shape** and structure
* Water creates **pressure** inside the cell that helps it maintain shape.
* contributes to the **formation of membranes** surrounding cells.
120
Why is water biologically important for reproduction?
Water molecules **surround DNA** in an ordered fashion to **support** its characteristic double-helix conformation. Without this shape, cells would be unable to follow the careful instructions encoded by DNA or to pass the instructions onto future cells, making human growth, **reproduction**
121
