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Anatomy and Physiology > Nervous System 2 > Flashcards

Nervous System 2 Flashcards

0
Q

What 3 major portions can the brain be divided into?

A
  1. Cerebrum
  2. Cerebellum
  3. Brainstem
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1
Q

What is brain size proportional to?

A

Body size only and can be divided into three major portions

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2
Q

Cerebrum appearance

A
  • 83% of brain volume
  • consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres
  • divided into multiple lobes each marked by gyri and sulcus
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3
Q

Sulcus

A

shallow groves (slits)

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4
Q

Fissure

A

DEEP groves (deep slits)

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5
Q

Gyrus

A

Convolutions (ridges that stick out)

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6
Q

Longitudinal fissure

A

Separates the left and right hemispheres, although they remain connected through the corpus callosum

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7
Q

Central sulcus

A

Separate front and back of cerebrum

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8
Q

Cerebellum location

A

Lies inferior and posterior to the cerebrum; more delicate surface markings
(Below and to the back of cerebrum)

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9
Q

Brainstem parts

A 
Base of brain
Thalamus
Hypothalamus 
Midbrain (top of brains stem/middle of brain)
Pons (bump)
Medulla oblongata (slight bump)
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10
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid location

A

Make in ventricles (lined with epithelium- ependemial cells)
-fills 4 hollow spaces in brain

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11
Q

Gray matter

A

Consisting of non-myelinated soma and dendrites

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12
Q

White matter

A

Myelinate nerve fibers (myelin is on axon)

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13
Q

**Location of gray matter in brain and spinal cord

A

Gray matter forms outer cortex* in brain, but is an inner core* in the spinal cord

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14
Q

White matter location in brain and spinal cord

A

White matter is inside brain and outside spinal cord

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15
Q

Meningitis

A

Very courageous and very deadly inflammation/infection in brain. Perform spinal tap to detect

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16
Q

Meninges

A

(Singular=meninx)

3 protective fibrous coverings that separate the brain and spinal cord from the skull and vertebrae

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17
Q

What separates brain and spinal cord from the skull and vertebrae

A

Meninges

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18
Q

Dura mater

A

Outermost meninx, really rough, consists of a periosteal layer and an inner meningeal layer

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19
Q

What part of and what does the dura mater form within the vertebral canal?

A

The meningeal layer (inner layer of dura mater) forms a dural sheath

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20
Q

Dural sheath

A

Same thing as the meningeal layer (inner layer) of the dura mater just the name for when it’s in the vertebral canal!

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21
Q

Epidural space location

A

Between the dural sheath and surrounding bone

Space is between the skull and the dura mater

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22
Q

Arachnoid mater

A

The second meninx that adheres to the dura and sends spider like extensions out to the #3 pia mater (highly vascular)

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23
Q

3 pia mater

A

Highly vascular, closely follows the contour of the brain

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24
Q

Subdural space

A

Between (below) dura mater and (above) arachnoid mater

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25
Q

Subarachnoid space

A

Separates arachnoid and pia mater

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26
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid appearance and function

A

Clear, colorless liquid that functions to lend buoyancy, for protection, in waste removal, and in providing a stable chemical environment

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27
Q

What is CSF produced by

A

The choroid plexus (area with ependymal cells) within each of the 4 ventricles

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28
Q

What do the ventricles in brain consist of?

A

Capillaries covered by simple cuboidal epithelium (ependymal cells that make CSF)

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29
Q

Blood-CSF fluid barrier

A

Tight junctions within capillaries in the choroid plexus form this that protects the brain; regulates substance entering the brain

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30
Q

Lateral ventricle

A

(2) located in each cerebral hemisphere; communicates with a third ventricle through an inter ventricular foramen

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31
Q

Interventricular foramen

A

How 2 lateral ventricles in each cerebral hemisphere communicate with a third ventricle

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32
Q

Cerebral aqueduct

A

Connects the third ventricle with the fourth ventricle

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33
Q

Circulation of CSF

A

Originated in choroid plexus, circulated through ventricles, makes its way into central canal of spinal cord, exits the fourth ventricle through two apertures (openings)

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34
Q

Does spinal cord go whole length of vertebrae?

A

NOOOO

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35
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

Hydro=water
Cephalus= head
“Water on the brain”- results from blockage of the route of CSF and its absorption
-causes- injury, rumors, infections, etc.

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36
Q

What fills up in hydrocephalus

A

The ventricles causing pressure and displacement

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37
Q

Blood supply in brain

A

Very metabolically active (demand for oxygen and glucose). Stopping blood supply for as little as 4 minutes can cause irreversible damage!!

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38
Q

Where is the blood-brain barrier NOT located?

A

It’s absent in areas of the brain (called circumventricular organs) that monitor blood glucose, pH, salinity, etc.

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39
Q

Circumventricular organs

A

Circum= around
Ventricular= ventricles
Monitor blood glucose, pH, salinity etc. Blood-brain barriers absent here **

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40
Q

3 functions of spinal cord

A

Locomotion, conduction, and reflex activity control

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41
Q

Where does the spinal cord begin and end?

A

Begins at the foramen magnum and ends and the FIRST lumbar vertebrae

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42
Q

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

A

31 pairs

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43
Q

How many cranial nerves are there

A

12 pairs

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44
Q

where does the spinal cord enlarge?

A

Cervical and lumbar areas; nerves to the appendages arise

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45
Q

Conus medullaris

A

Cord tapers to a point and end

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46
Q

Cauda equina

A

Nerve bundle exits the bottom of spinal cord (nerve fibers coming off conus medullaris)

*cauda-caudal-tail

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47
Q

Filum terminale

A

In addition to cauda equina

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48
Q

Lumbar puncture

A

Between vertebrae through fibrocartilage, punctures dura mater to get fluid; gives idea of what’s going on in brain

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49
Q

Fissure and sulcus in spinal cord cross section

A

Anterior median fissure (deep) and posterior median sulcus (not so deep)

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50
Q

Horns of spinal cord

A

Divided regions of a central area of gray matter in the spinal cord; 2 dorsal or posterior horns and 2 ventral or anterior horns

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51
Q

Gray commissure

A

Connects the right and left halves of horns in spinal cord

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52
Q

Central canal

A

Center of central gray matter (horns) in spinal cord

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53
Q

Route of sensory fibers **

A

Enter dorsal horn, synapse with an interneuron and somatic motor neurons exit via the central root of the spinal nerve.

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54
Q

How do nerves come out of spinal cord

A

In pairs (two roots)

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55
Q

Are tracts white or gray matter?

A

White matter

They are axons !!!

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56
Q

Ascending tracts

A

Spinal tracts that carry sensory information UP the spinal cord

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57
Q

Descending tracts

A

Spinal tracts that carry motor information DOWN the spinal cord

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58
Q

Decussation

A

a crossed tract of nerve fibers passing between centers on opposite sides of the nervous system

Left/right, right/left

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59
Q

What is the most important part of the brain?

A

Medulla oblongata

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60
Q

What does the medulla oblongata (hindbrain)control?

A

Coughing, hiccuping, sneezing, sweating, vomiting etc.

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61
Q

What 3 centers are in the medulla oblongata (hindbrain)

A

Cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory centers

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62
Q

Hindbrain

A

Consists of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata

Brain stem

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63
Q

How does info get from the cerebrum to the cerebellum

A

Must go through pons

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64
Q

What does the pons (hindbrain) control

A

The gray matter of the pons contains nuclei (gray matter masses) concerned with sleep, posture, respiration, swallowing, and bladder control.

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65
Q

Nuclei in brain

A

Little areas of gray in inside (gray is usually outside of brain)

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66
Q

Cerebellum physical features

A

Largest of the hindbrain !!
Right and left cerebellar hemispheres connect via the vermis; three paired cerebellar peduncles (nerve tracts) connect the cerebellum to the brainstem

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67
Q

What connect he cerebellum (hindbrain) to the brainstem

A

3 paired peduncles (nerve tracts)

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68
Q

Peduncles

A

3 paired peduncles= nerve tracts that connect the cerebellum to the brainstem

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69
Q

What does the cerebellum (hindbrain) control?

A

Modulates and coordinates VOLUNTARY movement of the limbs, maintains muscle tone and posture, coordinated eye movements, and helps in learning motor skills

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70
Q

Tectum

A

Midbrain!

Consists of 4 nuclei called the corpora quadrigemina

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71
Q

What does the tectum (mid-brain) control

A

The corpora quadrigemina of the tectum function in visual attention, tracking objects, and visual reflexes

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72
Q

Reticular formation location

A

A group of 100 nuclei scattered throughout the medulla, midbrain, and pons

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73
Q

What does the reticular formation do?

A

Function in somatic motor control, autonomic control, arousal, and pain modulation.

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74
Q

What does the thalamus consist of (top of brain stem)

A

Two oval masses of gray matter, underneath each cerebral hemisphere

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75
Q

Function of the thalamus (top of brain stem)

A

It’s the gateway to the cerebral cortex, nearly all info heading to the cerebrum passes through the thalamus, EXCEPT for sensory input from smell

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76
Q

What is the one thing that does not pass through the thalamus?

A

Sensory input from smell

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77
Q

What does the hypothalamus (brains stem) control

A

Major control center for ANS and endocrine; also homeostasis (involuntary and hormones)

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78
Q

Function of nuclei

A

(Gray covered by white)

Regulate food-water intake, thermoregulation, cardiovascular (medulla oblongata) regulation, sleep/waking, emotions

79
Q

Epithalamus function

A

cone-shaped gland, best known for synthesis of melatonin from serotonin. Role in light-sensitive circadian rhythms

80
Q

Melatonin

A

Influence on sleep; regulates time clock (nightly sleep cycle)

81
Q

Cerebral white

A

The white matter of the cerebrum does NOT make decisions, but comprises most of the cerebral volume

82
Q

Cerebral cortex anatomy

A

(40% of brain mass) a layer of gray matter (2-3mm thick) covering the cerebral hemispheres

83
Q

What are the 4 lines regions of the cerebral cortex

A

Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal

84
Q

Basal nuclei

A

Masses of gray matter buried deep in the cerebral hemispheres, involved in motor control and some thought process

85
Q

Limbic system

A

A loop of cortical structures surrounding the corpus callosum and thalamus
PERSONALITY AND EMOTIONS

86
Q

What emotions are controlled by limbic system

A

Fear, anger, love, and others

87
Q

Brain waves

A

Rhythmic voltage changes resulting from synchronized postsynaptic potentials in the cerebral cortex

88
Q

How can brain waves be recorded

A

As as electroencephalogram (EEG); often used as a legal criteria for death

89
Q

Sleep

A

A temporary state of unconsciousness (can be aroused)

90
Q

Coma

A

Person cannot be aroused

91
Q

What in the brain controls sleep

A

Hypothalamus and brain stem

92
Q

How many stages of sleep are there

A

4

The 4th stage is deep (slow wave)

93
Q

What happens during sleep several times a night?

A

Person backtracks to stage 1 and enters REM sleep

94
Q

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

A

Enter several times a night, also called paradoxical sleep because of the difficulty with which a sleeper can be aroused. Most dreams occur during this period. As sleep continues periods of REM get longer

95
Q

What happens during REM and what happens to it as sleep continues

A

Dreams and periods of REM sleep get longer as sleep continues

96
Q

Insomnia

Symptoms and percent of population

A

Inability to fall or remain asleep

10%

97
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Abnormal REM sleep causes extreme daytime sleepiness, behind between ages 15 and 25.
0.02-0.06%

98
Q

Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome

A

Upper airway collapses repeatedly during sleep, blocking breathing. Snoring and daytime sleepiness
4-5%

99
Q

Parasomnias

A

Sleepwalking, sleep talking, and night terrors outgrown less than 5% children

100
Q

Restless leg syndrome

A

Brief, repetitive leg jerks during sleep. Leg pain forces person to get up several times a night

Very rare

101
Q

7 functions of the cerebral cortex

A

Motor control, somatic control, special senses, association areas, cerebral lateralization, language, and memory

102
Q

Motor control

A

(Cerebral cortex)
Volunteers muscle contractions are initiated in the motor association area of the frontal lobes. The impulse is then sent to the precentral (front) of the gyrus (primary motor area)

103
Q

Somatic control

A

(Cerebral cortex)
The postcentral gyrus functions as the primary sensory area. Here neurons receive sensory info. (Receive sensory info in back)

104
Q

Special senses

A

(Cerebral cortex)
Input from the special senses (light, hearing, etc) does NOT enter the postcentral gyrus but instead travels to other specialized areas of the brain

105
Q

Association areas

A

(Cerebral cortex)
Carious association areas are located in the cerebral cortex including the somatosensory association area, the visual association area, the auditory association area, and the front association area.

106
Q

Cerebral lateralization

A

(Cerebral cortex)
The assignment of different tasks to different hemispheres, and is correlated with handedness. Most Americans are right handed (left hemisphere). Males show more lateralization.

107
Q

Language

A

(Cerebral cortex)

Includes several abilities and is assigned to different regions of the cerebral cortex

108
Q

Memory

A

(Cerebral cortex)

The storage and retrieval of acquired info or skills; established in phases

109
Q

Short term memory

A

(Cerebral cortex)

Lasts up to a few hours and is limited to 7-12 bits of info

110
Q

Long-term memory

A

(Cerebral cortex)

Last longer and can store an unlimited amount of info

111
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A

Shows both blood flow and metabolism (of oxygen and glucose) in the tissues of the working brain (sees how active the brain is)

112
Q

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality images of brain structures (better than CT in analyzing the nervous system and other soft tissue)

113
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

I

A

Olefactory

Smell

114
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

II

A

Optic

Vision

115
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

III

A

Oculomotor

Eyelid and eyeball movement

116
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

IV

A

Trochlear

Innervates superior oblique and turns eye downward and laterally

117
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

V

A

Trigeminal

Chewing, face and mouth touch and pain

118
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

VI

A

Abducens

Turns eye laterally

119
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

VII

A

Facial

Controls most facial expressions, secretion of tears and saliva taste

120
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

VIII

A

Vestibulocochlear (auditory)

Hearing; equilibrium sensation

121
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

IX

A

Glossopharyngeal

Taste; sense carotid blood pressure

122
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

X

A

Vagus

Senses aortic blood pressure, slows heart rate, stimulates digestive organs, taste

123
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

XI

A

Spinal accessory

Controls trapezius and sternocleidomastoid, controls swallowing movements

124
Q

Cranial nerve name and function

XII

A

Hypoglossal

Controls tongue movements

125
Q

What are the two cranial nerves that take part in controlling taste?

A

X Vagus
and
VII facial

126
Q

What 2 cranial nerves have to do with the heart and blood pressure

A

IX Glossopharyngeal
and
X vagus

127
Q

What 4 cranial nerves have to do with eye movement

A 
II Optic
III oculomotor
IV Trochlear
and
VI abducens
128
Q

Frontal lobes

A

Motor areas- voluntary skeletal muscle

Association areas- high intellectual processing

129
Q

Parietal lobes

A

Sensory areas- temp., touch, pressure, pain (skin)

Association areas- understanding speech and words to express thoughts and feelings

130
Q

Temporal lobes

A

Sensory areas- hearing

Association areas- interpret sensory experiences and remember visual scenes, music, etc.

131
Q

Occipital lobes

A

Sensory areas- vision

Association areas- combine visual images with other sensory experiences

132
Q

How are fibers classified

A

Direction (afferent/efferent), types of organs they innervate (somatic/visceral) and distribution (general/local)

** S-A-M-E

133
Q

Mixed nerves

A

Have BOTH motor and sensory fibers

134
Q

Sensory nerves (Olfactory and optic) contain…

A

Mostly sensory fibers

135
Q

Motor nerves contain ….

A

Motor fibers

136
Q

Ganglion

A

Cluster of nerve cell bodies generally outside the CNS

137
Q

Location of cranial nerves

A

(12 pairs)

Emerge from base of brain lead to muscles and sense organs in head and neck for most part

138
Q

Are spinal and cranial nerves part of the CNS or ANS?

A

ANS NOT the CNS !!!

139
Q

How does each spinal nerve branch?

A

Into dorsal root and ventral root

140
Q

Dorsal root ganglion

A

Occupied by cell bodies from afferent neurons

141
Q

Spinal nerve is formed by..

A

Convergence of dorsal and ventral roots

142
Q

Cauda equina is formed by…

A

The roots arising from segments L2 to Cx of the spinal region

143
Q

What does the spinal nerve do after emerging from the vertebral column

A

It divides into dorsal root and ventral root and a small meningeal branch that leads to the meninges and vertebral column

144
Q

dorsal ramus

A

Innervates the muscles and joints of the spine and the skin of the back

145
Q

Ventral ramus

A

Innervate a the ventral and lateral skin and muscles of the trunk, plus gives rise to nerves leading to the extremities

146
Q

What spinal nerve receives sensory input from a specific area of the skin (dermatome)?

A

Every spinal nerve except C-1

147
Q

How long do spinal nerves extend

A

From foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar vertebra

End= conus medullaris

148
Q

What continues after conus medullaris and attaches to coccyx?

A

Pia mater as filum terminale

149
Q

Spinal nerve extending downward from conus

A

cauda equina

150
Q

What two groves extend the length of the spinal cord

A

Anterior medial fissure and posterior median sulcus

151
Q

Somatic reflexes

A

Quick, involuntary, stereotypes reactions of peripheral effectors to stimulation.

152
Q

What is a spinal reflex made up of?

A

Reflex arc including: Somatic receptors, afferent nerve fibers, interneurons (association neurons), efferent nerve fibers, and skeletal muscle

153
Q

What happens when a muscle is stretched

A

It contracts to maintain tone (*stretch flex)

154
Q

Tendon reflex

A

(Knee jerk)

An example of monosynaptic reflex arc.

155
Q

Golgi tendon organs

A

Located at junction of a muscle and its tendon

156
Q

What do Golgi tendon organs produce?

A

An inhibitory response called the Golgi tendon reflex when muscle contracts too tightly (prevents damage to tendon)

157
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system a part of?

A

ANS

158
Q

What are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system

A 
Somatic (motor and sensory)
and autonomic (just motor)
159
Q

Is the peripheral nervous system in the spinal cord?

A

NO outside of CNS

160
Q

Somatic motor (efferent) divisions

A

Skeletal muscle, one efferent neuron, excitatory, acetylcholine (ONLY), voluntary

161
Q

Autonomic divisions

A

Motor/efferent ONLY
Smooth muscle/cardiac muscle/glands (not endocrine), two efferent neurons, excitatory or inhibitory, post ganglionic, acetylcholine or norepinephrine, and involuntary

162
Q

Can excitatory and inhibitory neurons go to same place?

A

Yea but stronger one wins or cancel each other out

163
Q

What are the two efferent neurons in the autonomic peripheral nervous system

A

Pre ganglionic and post ganglionic

164
Q

Pre ganglionic neuron

A

Dendrite + soma in CNS, axon exits

CNS proceeds to autonomic ganglion, always produces ACh!

165
Q

Post-ganglionic neuron

A

Cell body WITHIN autonomic ganglion but refer to it as entirely in ANS. Produces ACh or Norepinephrine

166
Q

What’s the one exception with the 2 efferent neurons in the autonomic peripheral nervous system?

A

Usually 2 efferent neuron pathways found in ANS but there is NO post ganglionic neuron to the adrenal medulla (one 1 pre gang.)
—> direct route to adrenal medulla, NO connection to autonomic ganglion. ACh

167
Q

Adrenal medulla gland

A

Above kidney, stimulated by norepinephrine; gland produces norepinephrine and 80% epinephrine, releases into blood can act as neurotransmitter

168
Q

What are the two divisions of the ANS?

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

169
Q

What division of ANS are most organs innervate by?

A

BOTH sympathetic and parasympathetic

170
Q

Sympathetic

A
  • Division of ANS
  • EXCITATORY
  • (Aka thoracolumbar)
171
Q

Where are pre ganglionic neurons in sympathetic division of ANS

A

They exit the CNS from this region of the spinal cord (thoracolumbar)

172
Q

What does the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system do for us?

A

Preparation for stressful situations … “fight or flight system”

173
Q

Do sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems combine?

A

Not usually bc they have opposite affects on cells/organs but they may both be active

174
Q

Parasympathetic

A
  • INHIBITORY
  • craniosacral (head to tail)
  • pre ganglionic neurons exit CNS from this region of the spinal cord
175
Q

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do for us?

A

Returns body to normal conditions after stress
“Feed and breed”
“Resting and digesting”

176
Q

What happens if both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are active?

A

The overall effect is influenced by the degree which one may predominate over the other and the particular nature of receptor sites

177
Q

What is the result of the adrenal medulla exception to the sympathetic division of ANS?

A

Adrenal medulla releases its own norepinephrine, mostly epinephrine, which is carried via the blood stream to responsive receptor sites

178
Q

What is a second exception to the sympathetic division of ANS?

A

Innervation of sweat glands, external genitalia, some skeletal muscle blood vessels. Here the post ganglionic neuron releases ACh not norepinephrine

179
Q

What about the pre ganglionic cell is the same in both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?

A

It is ALWAYS myelinated sneaking out of spinal cord and ALWAYS releases ACh

180
Q

How is the post ganglionic neuron different in sympathetic and parasympathetic?

A

Sympathetic- releases norepinephrine

Parasympathetic- ACh

181
Q

Difference between pre and post ganglionic in both sympathetic and parasympathetic

A

Pre- myelinated

Post- not myelinated !!

182
Q

Cholinergic receptors (membrane proteins)

A

Receptors that respond to ACh

183
Q

2 different cholinergic receptors that bind ACh and other molecules with similar activity

A

Muscarinic (excite or inhibit)
and
Nicotinic (excite only)

184
Q

Cholinergic fibers

A

Nerve fibers (cells) which produce (excite) ACh

185
Q

Muscarinic receptors

A
  • either excite or inhibit

- stimulated by muscarine (respond to mushroom poison)

186
Q

Nicotinic receptors

A
  • Stimulated by/respond to nicotine

- excite

187
Q

Can you OD on nicotine?

A

Yes

188
Q

Does it have to be ACh that turns on the cholinergic fibers: muscarinic receptors and Nicotinic receptors?

A

No, some chemicals can turn these on even though they’re not ACh

189
Q

Two catecholamines

A

-Norepinephrine and epinephrine

190
Q

What can adrenergic receptors do and where are they found?

A

️-Bind catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and other molecules with similar activity
- found on autonomic effector organs regulated by catecholamines

191
Q

Alpha receptors

A

Norepinephrine/epinephrine

EXCITATORY

192
Q

Beta receptors

A

Norepinephrine/epinephrine

INHIBITORY

193
Q

Why are there exceptions for both beta and alpha receptors of adrenergic receptors?

A

Because of the existence of different alpha and beta subtypes

194
Q

What’s an example of a beta receptor exception?

A

Beta heart receptors- increased heart activity! (Excite instead of the normal function to inhibit)

195
Q

Adrenergic fibers produce …

A

NOREPINEPHRINE

196
Q

Epinephrine is produced by…

A

ADRENAL MEDULLA

Anatomy and Physiology (16 decks)

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