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MCAT > 2C: Processes of cell division, differentiation and specialization > Flashcards

2C: Processes of cell division, differentiation and specialization Flashcards

1
Q

Autosomal Cells

A

Diploid (2n) = 46

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2
Q

Haploid Cells

A

Haploid (n) = 23

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3
Q

Interphase

A

Consists of G1, S, G2; actively dividing cells spend most of their time in this phase

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4
Q

Interphase

A

Consists of G1, S, G2; actively dividing cells spend most of their time in this phase

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5
Q

G0

A

The cell is simply living and serving its function without any preparation for division

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6
Q

Interphase

A

Consists of G1, S, G2; actively dividing cells spend most of their time in this phase;

Chromosomes are in less condensed form known as chromatin (so that DNA is available for RNA Pol to transcribe)

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7
Q

G0

A

The cell is simply living and serving its function without any preparation for division

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8
Q

G1 Stage [Presynthetic Gap]

A

Cell creates organelles for energy and produces proteins while increases their size; contains a restriction point

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9
Q

G1 Stage [Presynthetic Gap]

A

Cell creates organelles for energy and produces proteins while increases their size; contains a restriction point

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10
Q

S Stage [Synthesis]

A

Genetic material is replicated so that each daughter cell will have an identical copy; each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids after replication

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11
Q

G2 Stage [Postsynthetic Gap]

A

Cell passes through another quality control checkpoint - makes sure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm for both daughter cells

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12
Q

M Stage [Mitosis]

A

Consists of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis

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13
Q

M Stage [Mitosis]

A

Consists of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis

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14
Q

Prophase

A

Nucleus disappears, spindle forms, DNA condenses into chromosomes

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15
Q

Metaphase

A

Sister chromatids align along the equator of the cell by attaching their centromeres to the spindle fibers

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16
Q

Anaphase

A

Sister chromatids separate at the centromere and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle

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17
Q

Prophase

A

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms

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18
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes align along the equator of the cell by attaching their centromeres to the spindle fibers

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19
Q

Anaphase

A

Sister chromatids separate at the centromere and are pulled toward opposite poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle

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20
Q

Telophase

A

Nuclear membrane reforms and spindle apparatus disappears

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21
Q

Cyclins & Cyclin-Dependent Kinases

A

Rise and fall during the cell cycle controlling the activity of the cell cycle

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22
Q

Cancer

A

Occurs when cell cycle control becomes deranged, allowing damaged cells to undergo mitosis without regard for quality or quantity of the new cells produced

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23
Q

Metastasize

A

When cancerous cells produce factors that allow them to escape their site and invade elsewhere

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24
Q

Cyokinesis

A

Cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells

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25
Q

Centriole Function

A

Organize the centrosome

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26
Q

Aster Function

A

Formed around each centrosome

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27
Q

Kinetochore

A

Protein structure on chromatids where spindle fibers attach during cell division

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28
Q

Kinetochore

A

Protein structure on chromatids where spindle fibers attach during cell division

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29
Q

Nuclear Membrane Breakdown

A

During Prophase and allows microtubules to attach at kinetochore

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30
Q

Nuclear Membrane Reorganization

A

During Telophase

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31
Q

How do chromosomes move?

A

By use of the spindle fibers during metaphase

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32
Q

Reasons for Growth Arrest

A

Genomic mutation/damage
Lack of nutrients
Contact Inhibition (once they get in contact with other cells they stop)

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33
Q

Reasons for Growth Arrest

A

Genomic mutation/damage
Lack of nutrients
Contact Inhibition (once they get in contact with other cells they stop)

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34
Q

Mechanisms that Control the Cell Cycle

A

Checkpoints within the cycle itself (G1 and G2), Spindle checkpoint; cyclins and CDK

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35
Q

Mechanisms that Control the Cell Cycle

A

Checkpoints within the cycle itself (G1 and G2), Spindle checkpoint; cyclins and CDK

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36
Q

Oncogenes

A

Genes that have the potential to cause cancer; can be due to mutations or excessive expression

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37
Q

Apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death; the cells contents are not released to the environment but rather digested intracellularly

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38
Q

Triggers of Apotosis

A

Cell Damage
Cell Mutations
Developmental Mechanisms
Immune Response

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39
Q

Prophase

A

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms

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40
Q

Cytokinesis

A

Cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells

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41
Q

Triggers of Apotosis

A

Cell Damage
Cell Mutations
Developmental Mechanisms
Immune Response

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42
Q

Meiosis

A

Produces four non-identical haploid sex cells (gametes)

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43
Q

Rounds of Meiotic Division

A
  1. Reductional

2. Equational

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44
Q

Meiosis I

A

Homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated from each other

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45
Q

Homologues

A

Chromosomes that are given the same number but are of opposite parental origin

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46
Q

Prophase I

A

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms; additionally synapsis and crossing over occurs

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47
Q

Prophase I

A

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate and spindle apparatus forms; additionally synapsis and crossing over occurs

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48
Q

Metaphase I

A

Homologues line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate

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49
Q

Anaphase I

A

Homologues segregate to opposite poles of the cell

-Accounts for segregation and independent assortment

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50
Q

Anaphase I

A

Homologues segregate to opposite poles of the cell

-Accounts for segregation and independent assortment

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51
Q

Telophase I

A

Chromosomes decondense and the cell may enter interkinesis

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52
Q

Telophase I

A

Chromosomes decondense and the cell may enter interkinesis

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53
Q

Meiosis II

A

Same process as Mitosis

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54
Q

Spermatogenesis Outline

A

Spermatogonium -> Primary Spermatocyte -> Secondary Spermatocyte -> Spermatid

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55
Q

Spermatogenesis Outline

A

Spermatogonium -> Primary Spermatocyte -> Secondary Spermatocyte -> Spermatid

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56
Q

Spermatogonium

[2n]

A

A diploid cell that undergoes mitosis and creates a primary spermatocyte

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57
Q

Primary Spermatocyte

[2n]

A

Undergoes Meiosis I and produces a secondary spermatocyte

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58
Q

Secondary Spermatocyte

[n]

A

Undergoes Meiosis II and produces a spermatid

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59
Q

Spermatid

[n]

A

Matures into sperm

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60
Q

Oogenesis Outline

A

Oogonium -> Primary Oocyte -> Secondary Oocyte -> Ovum

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61
Q

Oogonium

[2n]

A

A diploid cell that undergoes mitosis to produce a primary oocyte

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62
Q

Primary Oocyte

[2n]

A

A diploid cell that undergoes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte

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63
Q

Secondary Oocyte

[n]

A

A haploid cell that undergoes meiosis II to produce an ovum

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64
Q

Site of Sperm Development

A

Seminiferous Tubules of the Testes

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65
Q

Sertoli Cells

A

Nourish sperm

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66
Q

Interstitial Cells of Leydig

A

Secretes testosterone and other androgens

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67
Q

Scrotum

A

Site of the testes

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68
Q

Epididymis

A

Give sperm motility and store sperm until ejaculation

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69
Q

Epididymis

A

Give sperm motility and store sperm until ejaculation

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70
Q

Ejaculation Pathway

A

Vas Deferens -> Ejaculatory Duct -> Urethra -> Penis

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71
Q

Seminal Vesicles

A

Contribute fructose to nourish sperm and produce alkaline fluid

72
Q

Prostate Gland

A

Also produces alkaline fluid

73
Q

Bulbourethral Glands

A

Produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal

74
Q

Bulbourethral Glands

A

Produce clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal

75
Q

Semen

A

Composed of sperm and seminal fluid from the bulbourethral glands, seminal vesicles and prostate glands

76
Q

Semen

A

Composed of sperm and seminal fluid from the bulbourethral glands, seminal vesicles and prostate glands

77
Q

Sperm Structure

A

Head, Midpiece and Flagellum

78
Q

Head of Sperm

A

Contains genetic material and covered in an acrosome that contains enzymes that help the sperm fuse and penetrate the ovum

79
Q

Midpiece of Sperm

A

Generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria

80
Q

Flagellum of Sperm

A

Promotes motility

81
Q

Flagellum of Sperm

A

Promotes motility

82
Q

Ovum (Ova)

A

Produced in the follicles of the ovaries

83
Q

Ovum (Ova)

A

Produced in the follicles of the ovaries

84
Q

Polar Body

A

Uneven portion of the cytokinesis product in oogenesis

85
Q

Polar Body

A

Uneven portion of the cytokinesis product in oogenesis

86
Q

Zona Pellucida

A

Surrounds oocytes which is an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protects the oocyte and contain the compounds necessary for sperm binding

87
Q

Corona Radiata

A

A layer of cells that adhere to the oocyte during ovulation

88
Q

Corona Radiata

A

A layer of cells that adhere to the oocyte during ovulation

89
Q

Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone

A

Released from the hypothalamus and causes the release of FSH and LH

90
Q

Function of FSH in Males

A

Stimulates sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis

91
Q

Function of LH in Males

A

Stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone

92
Q

Function of Testosterone

A

Responsible for maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics

93
Q

Function of Testosterone

A

Responsible for maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics

94
Q

Function of FSH in Females

A

Stimulates development of the ovarian follicles; produce estrogen and progesterone

95
Q

Function of LH in Females

A

Stimulates ovulation; produce estrogen and progesterone

96
Q

Primary Oocyte

[2n]

A

A diploid cell that undergoes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte
[Arrests in Prophase I]

97
Q

Secondary Oocyte

[n]

A

A haploid cell that undergoes meiosis II to produce an ovum

[Arrests in Metaphase II]

98
Q

Function of LH in Females

A

Stimulates ovulation; produce estrogen and progesterone

99
Q

Reproductive Sequence

A

Fertilization -> Implantation -> Development -> Birth

100
Q

Reproductive Sequence

A

Fertilization -> Implantation -> Development -> Birth

101
Q

Menstrual Cycle Sequence

A

Follicular Phase -> Ovulation -> Luteal Phase -> Menstruation

102
Q

Follicular Phase

A

GnRH stimulates FSH and LH which promotes follicle development; estrogen is released which stimulates vascularization and glandularization of the decidua (uterine lining)

103
Q

Ovulation

A

Stimulated by a surge of LH; surge due to estrogens positive feedback effects

104
Q

Luteal Phase

A

LH promotes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining.

105
Q

Negative Feedback of GnRH, LH and FSH

A

Caused by high levels of estrogen and progesterone

106
Q

Menstruation

A

Occurs if there is no fertilization; endometrial lining is broken off and the block on GnRH production is removed

107
Q

Fertilization Effects

A

Blastula produces hcG which maintains the corpus luteum

108
Q

Menopause

A

Occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone

109
Q

Menopause

A

Occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone

110
Q

Implantation Sequence

A

Zygote -> Morula -> Blastocyst

111
Q

Developmental Sequence

A

Blastocyst -> Gastrula -> Neurula

112
Q

Developmental Sequence

A

Blastocyst -> Gastrula -> Neurula

113
Q

Where does fertilization occur?

A

In the ampulla of the fallopian tube

114
Q

What happens after the sperm penetrates the corona radiata and zona pellucida?

A

The sperm establishes the acrosomal apparatus and injects its nucleus; it also releases calcium ions that prevent additional sperm from fertilizing the ovum

115
Q

What is a cortical reaction?

A

The reaction that prevents additional sperm from fertilizing the egg and increases the metabolic rate of the zygote

116
Q

What is a cortical reaction?

A

The reaction that prevents additional sperm from fertilizing the egg and increases the metabolic rate of the zygote

117
Q

How do dizygotic twins form?

A

Two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm

118
Q

How do monozygotic twins form?

A

Splitting of a zygote into two

119
Q

How do dizygotic (fraternal) twins form?

A

Two eggs are fertilized by two different sperm

120
Q

How do monozygotic (identical) twins form?

A

Splitting of a zygote into two

121
Q

How do monozygotic (identical) twins form?

A

Splitting of a zygote into two

122
Q

Cleavage

A

Early divisions of cells in the embryo; resulting in a larger number of small cells but the volume remains the same

123
Q

When is the zygote considered an embryo?

A

After the first cleavage because its no longer considered to be unicellular

124
Q

Indeterminate Cleavage

A

Results in cells that are capable of becoming any cell in the organism

125
Q

Determinate Cleavage

A

Results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

126
Q

Determinate Cleavage

A

Results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

127
Q

Morula

A

A solid mass of cells seen in early development that eventually becomes the blastula (blastocyst)

128
Q

Blastula

A

A structure that contains blastocoel in its interior and contains trophoblasts and inner cell mass

129
Q

Trophoblasts

A

Become placental structures

130
Q

Inner Cell Mass

A

Becomes the developing organism

131
Q

Placenta

A

Formed when the blastula implants into the endometrial lining

132
Q

Placenta

A

Formed when the blastula implants into the endometrial lining; provides oxygen and nutrients to the fetus as well as removes carbon dioxide and waste products

133
Q

Chorion

A

Contains chorionic villi which penetrates the endometrium and creates the interface between maternal and fetal blood

134
Q

Yolk Sac

A

Supports the embryo before the placenta is established

135
Q

Yolk Sac

A

Supports the embryo before the placenta is established

136
Q

Allantois

A

Involved in early fluid exchange between the embryo and the yolk sac

137
Q

Amnion

A

Inside the chorion which produces amniotic fluid

138
Q

Amnion

A

Inside the chorion which produces amniotic fluid

139
Q

Gastrulation

A

The cells of the blastula rearrange themselves and invaginate into the hollow ball so it creates an inner layer of cells and outer layer of cells and the cells between the two; forms Ecto, Meso and Endoderm

140
Q

Archenteron

A

Formed with a blastopore at the end through the blastocoel; becomes the anus

141
Q

Ectoderm

A

Becomes mouth, epidermis, hair, nails, anal canal, epithelia of the nose, lens of the eye and the adrenal medulla

142
Q

Mesoderm

A

Becomes mostly the musculoskeletal, circulatory and excretory system; gonads; muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems; adrenal cortex

143
Q

Mesoderm

A

Becomes mostly the musculoskeletal, circulatory and excretory system; gonads; muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems; adrenal cortex

144
Q

Endoderm

A

Becomes the epithelial lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts and parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts

145
Q

Endoderm

A

Becomes the epithelial lining of the respiratory and digestive tracts and parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tracts

146
Q

Neurulation

A

Development of the nervous system that begins after the formation of the three germ layers

147
Q

Notochord

A

Induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to form neural folds surrounding a neural groove

148
Q

Neural Tube

A

Forms from the fusing the neural folds and becomes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

149
Q

Neural Tube

A

Forms from the fusing the neural folds and becomes the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

150
Q

Neural Crest Cells

A

Located at the tip of the neural folds and become the peripheral nervous system (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and schwann cells)

151
Q

Teratogens

A

Substances that interfere with development causes defects or death of the developing embryo; alcohol, certain drugs, viruses, bacteria and chemicals

152
Q

Folic Acid Deficiency

A

Cause Neural Tube defects

153
Q

Folic Acid Deficiency

A

Cause Neural Tube defects

154
Q

Determination

A

Commitment of a specific cell lineage

155
Q

What causes cellular determination?

A

Morphogens or uneven segregation of cellular material during mitosis

156
Q

Morphogens

A

Promote development down a specific cell line

157
Q

What does a cell need to have to respond to a specific morphogen?

A

Competency (ability to take up dna and become genetically transformed)

158
Q

Differentiation

A

Changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriate to its cell line

159
Q

Differentiation

A

Changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriate to its cell line

160
Q

Stem Cells

A

Cells capable of developing into various cell types; classified by potency

161
Q

Stem Cells

A

Cells capable of developing into various cell types; classified by potency

162
Q

Totipotent Cells

A

Able to differentiate into all cell types, including three germ layers and placental structures

163
Q

Totipotent Cells

A

Able to differentiate into all cell types, including three germ layers and placental structures

164
Q

Pluripotent Cells

A

Able to differentiate into all three of the germ layers and their derivatives

165
Q

Multipotent Cells

A

Able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types

166
Q

Multipotent Cells

A

Able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types

167
Q

Inducer

A

Releases factors to promote differentiation of a competent responder

168
Q

Autocrine Signals

A

Act on the same cell that released the signal

169
Q

Paracrine Signals

A

Act on cells in the local area

170
Q

Juxtacrine Signals

A

Act through direct stimulation of the adjacent cells

171
Q

Endocrine Signals

A

Act on distant tissues after traveling through the blood stream

172
Q

Endocrine Signals

A

Act on distant tissues after traveling through the blood stream

173
Q

Growth Factors

A

Peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues

174
Q

Reciprocal Induction

A

When two tissues induce further differentiation in each other

175
Q

Programmed Cell Death

A

Formation of apoptotic blebs that can subsequently be absorbed and digested by other cells; can be used to sculpt certain anatomical structures

176
Q

Regenerative Capacity

A

Ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body; liver has high and heart has low

177
Q

Senescence

A

Result of multiple molecular and metabolic processes; shortening of telomeres during cell division

MCAT (31 decks)

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