4.3.1 issues and debates

Question 1

universality

Answer 1

Means all research is assumed to apply equally to both genders. A lot of research is mindful of the gender perspective so some assumptions of universality are underpinned by rigorous testing across both genders. This means biased research can occur but assumptions of universality are often well researched

Question 2

alpha and beta bias

Answer 2

Alpha bias- attempt to exaggerate the differences between the genders eg. Freud’s theory of moral development.

Beta bias- the attempt to downplay the differences between the genders.

Question 3

culture

Answer 3

Bronfenbrenner (1979,19890 devised the ecological model to consider a child’s development. His model considered the 4 levels at which interactions can occur.

1. The microsystem- is immediate context in which a child is involved
2. The mesosystem- the variety of environments that a child encounters, such as school, nursery etc.
3. The exosystem- are contexts which affect the child even though they don’t go there because they interact with child’s microsystems. Eg. Interaction between the child’s home and their parents workplace
4. The macrosystem- the culture in which the child grows up. Has a direct effect on the other systems and this section of the topic considers how this is sometimes guilty if skewing research so that there is a bias towards how research is conducted and reported

Question 4

androcentrism

Answer 4

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 5

cultural relativism

Answer 5

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 6

bias

Answer 6

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 7

male samples

Answer 7

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 8

male standard

Answer 8

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 9

biological difference emphasis

Answer 9

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 10

free will

Answer 10

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 11

determinism

Answer 11

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 12

determinism

Answer 12

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 13

environmental determinism

Answer 13

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 14

biological determinism

Answer 14

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 15

psychic determinism

Answer 15

Is the stance that the behaviour of men is taken as the norm and that the behaviour of women, if it differs, is therefore atypical.

Question 16

scientific emphasis on causational factors

Answer 16

Science in psychology is the use of methods from the natural sciences to find causal mechanisms for behaviour and thought.
To examine a psychological phenomenon, a psychologist must:
Develop a theory followed by a prediction of what might happen ( hypothesis)
Then use empirical methods to test the hypothesis
If it is shown to have significant effect, this is then considered to be an indication that there is causal relationship.

Question 17

free will

Answer 17

Idea we are able to control and chose our course of action. We can make our own decisions and can act in unconstrained ways

Question 18

hard determinism

Answer 18

The view human behaviour is determined by external forces and the actions are out of control

Question 19

soft determinism

Answer 19

Idea behaviour is determined but humans also have the opportunity to exercise free will if need be. Acknowledges that determinism exists but there is also the ability to choose in some circumstances

Question 20

nature

Answer 20

Nativism is the term used to describe a stance that agrees with the nature side of the debate.
It was introduced by Rene Descartes (1596- 1650), who suggested that the human soul. When born, is already equipped with an understanding of key concepts such as time. This formed the basis of the nativist point of view that we are born with predispositions and pre-programmed behaviours.
Twin studies offer support

Question 21

nurture

Answer 21

Empiricism is the opposing viewpoint to nativism which says that we are born without any innate mechanisms and all we become is due to our experiences.
It is a term for the nurture side of the debate.
John Locke argued that we are born as a blank slate or ‘tabula rasa’. He proposed it is our experiences that lead to the formation of self.
Learning approach offers support

Question 22

twin studies

Answer 22

A key way heredity s studied is through twin studies. Monozygotic twins (MZ) are 100% identical and so if behaviour is dictated purely by genetics, they would act the same. They do not however and so environment must have an influence.
If we compare how likely a behaviour is to occur with identical twins and non-identical twins, the difference in gene similarity gives us an indication of the extent of genetic influence. However, the core assumption of twin studies is that the only difference between MZ and DZ twins is the genetic similarity level
Furnhan (1996) argued the assumption could be erroneous. As MZ twins look the same, parents may treat them more similarly than DZ twins, meaning the environment differs.
Any likelihood of a behaviour occurring could be the result of environmental similarities

Question 23

QTL equation

Answer 23

Plomin (1994) argues we have been too reductionist when looking for genetic explanations. 
The OGOD ( one gene, one disorder) approach has meant the level of genetic influence could have been underestimated. If only 1 gene is sought, and none is found, then the role of genes interacting with each other is missed. 
The alternate viewpoint of how genes affect behaviour is the QTL ( quantitative trait loci) and this research involves the search for multiple genes.

Question 24

interactionist approach

Answer 24

Takes a stance somewhere between extreme nature and extreme nurture.
Argues that both genes and environment play a part in behaviour, in that genes give us a pre-disposition and is moderated by the environment

Question 25

heritability

Answer 25

Geneticists report to have developed a mathematical way of calculating the relative influence of genetics and environment on behaviour.
It reports to calculate the contribution each of the 2 elements makes to the variance of this behaviour
V= G + E + ( G × E )
V is variance, G is genetic influence, E is environmental influence, G×E is the interaction between genes and the environment

Question 26

holism

Answer 26

The argument that behaviour should be viewed as whole

Advocates looking at the whole person rather than 1 specific part to explain behaviour.

Question 27

reductionism

Answer 27

A single explanation or cause is suggested

Question 28

biological reductionism

Answer 28

Explaining behaviour using behavioural systems. this could be genetics, physiology of the body or brain, or biochemistry.

Question 29

environmental reductionism

Answer 29

‘learned associations’. It simplifies a behaviour to a stimulus-response action.
Is advocated by behaviourist theories. Eg. Classical conditioning.

Question 30

nomothetic

Answer 30

States we are able to draw conclusions about populations of people and generalise to a wider group than the ones directly involved in research.
Seeks to establish general laws about behaviour that can applied across any given population.
It is proposed there are 3 types of general laws (Radford and Kirby, 1975). These are classification, establishing principles and establishing dimensions.

Question 31

idiographic

Answer 31

Considers the individual
Doesn’t seek to generalise to others from research.
Believe an individual is unique and they should be considered as such.
Favours qualitative methods of investigation. Traditionally opts to use methods that allow for opinion, attitude and self-reflection.

Question 32

classification

Answer 32

The idea that people can be classified into certain groups according to characteristics, attitudes or behaviour.

Question 33

establishing principles

Answer 33

The focus on trying to establish laws and principles that can be applied to human behaviour.

Question 34

establishing principles

Answer 34

The focus on trying to establish laws and principles that can be applied to human behaviour.

Question 35

establishing principle

Answer 35

The attempt to document continuums upon which an individual can be placed.
Allows comparison with others and facilitates scientific measurement.
This focus on establishing dimensions is widely used on personality research where trait theories state we have a level of a certain trait and it is variation in the level of those traits that influence behaviour.

Question 36

research questions

Answer 36

The research question asked by a researcher an the methodology used is dependent on their viewpoint on this debate