6.1 Emergence and Evolution of Modern Sport

Question 1

What is the definition of social?

Answer 1

Our community, in this context

Question 2

What is the definition of cultural?

Answer 2

The set of beliefs and customs that leads us to behave in a particular way within our community

Question 3

What is mob football?

Answer 3

It was a game with very few rules which was played only occasionally in, or between, villages. There were football/rugby-type games.

Question 4

When was mob football played?

Answer 4

At the time of celebration and festivity

Question 5

What was the aim of mob football?

Answer 5

Both groups of villagers tried to force a ball into the centre of the ‘enemy’ village at alternatively they would play across different parts of town, centred at a market place or town square

Question 6

What was the one rule of mob football?

Answer 6

No murder or manslaughter

Question 7

What are the 4 ideas surrounding the origins of mob football?

Answer 7

1 The game originated in Britain around the 3rd century as a celebration over the defeated Romans.
2 The game was played with the severed head of a vanquished Danish prince.
3 The game may have been a pagan ritual in which the ball, representing the sun, had to be conquered and driven around the field, ensuring a good harvest.
4 The early rugby being played in teams between married men and bachelors

Question 8

How does cock fighting work?

Answer 8

There was a 14-foot square put with an 8-inch high fence. The cockerel was tied to a stake and you would have to pay to throw sticks or stones at it, from 20 feet. If you knocked the bird over and picked up the stick before the bord picked itself up, you could claim the bird as your own and charge others to throw at it.

Question 9

Was cock fighting upper class or lower class and why?

Answer 9

Cock fighting was generally an upper class sport and was probably the reason why it survived so long. There was a great deal of gambling involved in these cruel spectacles.

Question 10

What is the definition of the social class?

Answer 10

A group defined by their status within a community or population. The class that a person may belong to is defined by economic success, as well as family background, who yours friends are and education level. Social class, in Britain, is typically made up of upper, middle and lower class.

Question 11

In pre-industrial Britain, how was social class divided?

Answer 11

1 Upper class - aristocracy or gentry who were hereditary landowners.
2 Lower/peasant class - peasants who worked manually, mainly on the land.

Question 12

What kind of activities did the peasant classes do in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 12

Mob football, dog fighting and prize fighting. There activities were simple, often violent and had few rules.

Question 13

What kind of activities did the upper classes do in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 13

Real tennis and fox hunting. These activities were more sophisticated and had complex sets of rules or required money with which to participate. The upper-class gentry had the money, education and means of transport to help them to develop these sophisticated activities.

Question 14

What is the definition of pedestrianism?

Answer 14

A form of 19th century competitive walking

Question 15

What activity in Pre-industrial Britain would both classes have roles in and how?

Answer 15

In pedestrianism, the lower classes would compete in running or walking races and the upper class would be the patrons, kind of sponsors for the lower-class participants. These activities were often linked to the occupation of the peasant classes, namely labouring or serving the upper classes

Question 16

What is ‘running footmen’ from pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 16

These ‘running footmen’ would be employed to ensure that the carriages were not overturned on the rough carriage tracks. The aristocrats would put wagers on their footmen beating others in races. By the end of the 18th century, these races became more widespread and thus the activity of pedestrianism was developed.

Question 17

How did both social classes from pre-industrial Britain take part in cricket?

Answer 17

During pre-industrial Britain, cricket was often associated with public houses. For example, the famous Hambledon Cricket Club based at the Bat and Ball Inn in Hampshire during the mid-to-late 18th century. The different roles reflected the status of the participants with the terms ‘gentlemen’ (gentry amateurs) and ‘players’ (lower class professionals.

Question 18

What is the definition of amateur?

Answer 18

A person who competes in sports activities but does not receive monetary reward for participating

Question 19

What is the definition of professional?

Answer 19

A person who competes in sports activities and earns an income by participating.

Question 20

In pre-industrial Britain, how were women perceived?

Answer 20

Women were very much seen as the ‘weaker’ sex and therefore activities had to suit this view and not be too strenuous or dangerous. Those women in the peasant classes had few rights in society and all women had few choices in the activities that they could acceptably be involved in.

Question 21

In pre-industrial Britain, what kind of activities were women allowed to take part in?

Answer 21

During country fairs or wakes, peasant women might get involved in a ‘smock race’. This was a race that attracted the prize of a smock (a basic dress). Upper-class women might be involved in activities such as archery

Question 22

During pre-industrial Britain, what was the law and order like?

Answer 22

It had little in the way of formal law and order and this shaped the types of activities that were undertaken. The peasant classes would be more involved in violent activities, such as bare-knuckled fighting and animal baiting, reflecting the lack of order in activities and cruelty to animals in blood sports. Mob football had few rules, which again reflected the lack of law and order in society at this time.

Question 23

How did the education and literacy of pre-industrial Britain impact the activities at the time?

Answer 23

The upper classes were could read and write could read and understand the rules of more sophisticated activities like real tennis, whereas the peasant class were involved with activities that were simple with few rules, such as mob football.

Question 24

How did the availability of time for the lower class in Pre-industrial Britain impact the activities at the time?

Answer 24

Lower-class peasants worked very long and exhausting hours labouring on the land. There was little appetite for physical activities because of the exhaustion from work. Therefore, many activities were often confined to festivals or holy day fairs or those that were based in or around local public houses, such as drinking contests or bare-knuckled fighting.

Question 25

How did the availability of time for the upper class in pre-industrial Britain impact the activities at the time.?

Answer 25

The upper classes had more time on their hands and could therefore be involved in activities that were longer lasting. Fox hunting, for example, was a popular activity for the upper classes.

Question 26

How did the availability of money for the upper class impact the activities partaken during pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 26

The upper class had much more time and money available so had more opportunities for involvement. They could afford horses, equipment and appropriate clothing for sports such as hunting. Activities like real or royal tennis were played by the aristocracy, using expensive equipment and facilities. This upper class participated in activities that were very popular with those who owned the land and the aristocracy; these were exclusive activities for the upper classes because they had the land and the money.

Question 27

What was the class system like in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 27

Upper class/Lower class. The social class you belonged in to in pre-industrial Britain depended on your birth. This affected the sports and activities it was acceptable to play and be involved in.

Question 28

What sports and activities did the working class participate in in pre-industrial Britian?

Answer 28

Working-class played pastimes such as mob football, dog fighting and prize fighting. These sports were violent and has very few rules.

Question 29

What sports and activities did the upper class participate in in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 29

Upper-class played pastimes such as real tennis and fox hunting. These activities were sophisticated and has complex sets of rules.

Question 30

How was gender viewed in pre-industrial Britain and how did this affect sport at the time?

Answer 30

Women participated in very different activities to men. Activities were shaped by the expected behaviour of women and they were seen as the weaker sex and therefore activities couldn't be dangerous or strenuous.

Question 31

What activities were lower-class women allowed to participate in in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 31

smock races which is when they run to win a dress

Question 32

What activities were upper class women allowed in participate in in pre-industrial Britain?

Answer 32

activities such as archery

Question 33

What was law and order like in pre-industrial Britain and how did this affect sport?

Answer 33

Britain, at this stage, had little in the way of a formal law and order system and this was seen in the activities that were undertaken. Lower-class would play unruly activities such as mob football and bare-knuckled fighting. Upper class sports such as real tennis would contain rules that were observed and abided by.

Question 34

What was the type and availability of transport like in pre-industrial Britain and how did this affect sport?

Answer 34

Mainly horse and cart were used pre 1850 but most of the population had to walk if they wanted to get somewhere. Roads were in an appalling state and this prevented people from leaving their home villages. Upper-class people had more opportunities to travel further in their horse and carts to get to sporting events.

Question 35

What was the availability of money like in pre-industrial Britain and how did this affect sport?

Answer 35

The upper-class had more money available to them so had more opportunities for involvement. They could afford horses, equipment and appropriate clothing. This was required in real tennis. The lower class couldn't afford such luxuries and had to play sports like bare-knuckle fighting where no special clothing or equipment was required.

Question 36

What was availability of time like in pre-industrial Britain and how did this affect sport?

Answer 36

Lower-class people had to work constantly and therefore could only play pastimes on holy days that they were given holidays on. The upper class had more time on their hands and could be involved in activities that were longer lasting like fox hunting.

Question 37

What was education and literacy like in pre-industrial Britain and how did this affect sport?

Answer 37

The upper-class were educated and literate. However, lower-classes were not at all educated properly. This meant the upper-classes could play games with strict written rules such as cock fighting which they gambled on whereas lower-class couldn't understand rules books and had to play unruly games such as bare-knuckle fighting,

Question 38

What is the definition of public school?

Answer 38

A place of education of old standing which the sons of gentlemen traditionally attended in large numbers and continue to attend from 8-18 years of age.

Question 39

How did social class change in relation to post-industrial Britain?

Answer 39

During the 19th century, society in Britain had much stronger social class divisions and these helped to shape the sports and pastimes in post-industrial Britain. At this time, there became an identifiable middle class - those that were professionals, factory owners and managers, who did not own big estates and were not born into aristocracy. The middle classes had increasingly more time and money to be involved in sports activities. The middle class were very important in developing sport - many went to public schools and were influential in developing rules and governing bodies of sport activities such as football and rugby.

Question 40

How was amateurism and professionalism evident in cricket during post-industrial Britain?

Answer 40

To be am amateur was to not need to be paid to play and, therefore, this status suited the upper classes and eventually the middle classes. In cricket, where amateurs and professions often played in the same team, social distinction was preserved through the use of different changing rooms and requiring the lower-class professionals to bowl and to clean the kit.

Question 41

How was amateurism and professionalism evident in rugby during post-industrial Britain?

Answer 41

In rugby, professionalism was probably the most controversial. The growth of socially mixed northern teams led to broken-time payments, where working men were compensated for missing work in order to play. These payments were against the amateur principles of playing for the sake of the game and not for monetary gain, held by the upper class. These tensions and north-couth rivalries led to rugby splitting into 2 codes, which later became known as rugby league and rugby union.

Question 42

What was the role of women in the 19th century?

Answer 42

It was very restricted by their place in society and its conventions and the very limited opportunities. Women were expected to marry and have children, and be financially dependent on their husbands. Therefore, many looked at education for women as frivolous and pointless.

Question 43

What was education like for girls in the 19th century?

Answer 43

Schooling for girls was more limited than for boys. Women rarely had careers and most professions refused entry to women. Women were allowed to become teachers, but teaching was a low-status job at that time and was badly paid.

Question 44

What happened to the status of women in the late 19th century?

Answer 44

The assumption that women should marry was compromised due to a shortage of men because of the high mortality rate for boys compared to girls, the large numbers of males serving in the armed forces abroad and the fact that men were more likely than women to emigrate. The limitations of schooling for women were identifies by the Taunton Royal Commission Report on secondary education in 1868. Following this, a series of female educational pioneers emerged, therefore encouraging women to be more involved in sport.

Question 45

How did law and order change due to post-industrial Britain?

Answer 45

The development of more defined laws and sense of order affected the types of activities that were undertaken, especially for the working class. Changes in laws led to the decline of blood sports such as animal baiting and cock fighting. The upper classes, however, held on to their sports - deemed by some as being just as cruel - such as fox hunting. The law makers were the middle and upper classes and so it was in their interest to support the sports that they held so dear.

Question 46

What was the education system like in post-industrial Britain?

Answer 46

A national system of education came late in Britain mainly because of the social, economic and religious climate of the century. The upper class had little interest in wanting the cultural development of the working classes. The effects of the revolutions in Europe reinforced and hardened the need to keep the masses under control and less powerful and therefore less educated. The vast majority of the working class had very little interest in education because it was perceived to be of little relevance.

Question 47

How did the education of post-industrial Britain link to sport at the time?

Answer 47

The links between education, literacy and sport are that sports deemed to be more sophisticated, requiring more cognitive processing and an understanding of the rules, tended to be for the upper and now new middle classes. The lower classes were still much more engaged with activities associated with the public houses and wagering on horse racing.

Question 48

What was the Education Act of 1870 and what is its relevance?

Answer 48

It was the beginning of the modern system of education in England. This gave rise to a national system of state education. The Act required the establishment of elementary schools nationwide. These were not to replace or duplicate what already existed but to supplement those already run by the churches, private individuals and guilds.

Question 49

How and when the education become free?

Answer 49

Elementary education became effectively free with the passing of the 1891 Education Act.

Question 50

What did the Education Act of 1891 allow to happen?

Answer 50

Education was becoming much more accessible to the lower classes and therefore the understanding of more sophisticated rules in sport was much more widespread and more people, other than the upper and new middle classes, were becoming involved in sport.

Question 51

What did factory owners realise about sport in post-Industrial Britain?

Answer 51

The factory owners, who once did all they could to prevent their poorly paid workers playing sports, now realised that sport could keep their workers healthy and loyal. Many employers encouraged the formation of works teams.

Question 52

During post-industrial Britain, what was introduced to provide a period of time to enable sport to take place?

Answer 52

The growth of factories and machinery within the factories meant that working hours were long and pay was poor. A 72-hour week was not uncommon for a worker at that time so there was little time and energy for sport. The Saturday half-day was given to workers so they had more time for sport and leisure. Sports clubs started to develop.

Question 53

How did the seaside holiday develop in post-Industrial Britain?

Answer 53

The factory owners recognised that a happier, more contented workforce would be more effective as workers and therefore encouraged the development of sports clubs. In larger factories, the owners would pay for an annual excursion for the workers, such as trips to the seaside.

Question 54

By 1965, what was the availability of time like for workers?

Answer 54

A 40-45 hour working week was typical. By the end of the 20th century, an average working week was 37-40 hours. This reduction makes it so much easier to be involved in sport. The law today states that holidays should be at least 4 weeks per annum.

Question 55

How did the availability of transport change post-industrial Britain?

Answer 55

It was the development of roads, the bicycle, the railways and eventually the motorcar that enabled good communication and travel. The railways in particular were very important in the development of seaside resorts, and, in sport, allowed fixtures to be played and spectators to be able to visit venues around the country.

Question 56

What was the influence of public schools during post-industrial Britain?

Answer 56

The middle classes were very important in developing sport - many went to public schools and were influential in developing rules and governing bodies of sports activities. They were called public because those that attended did not necessarily come from that area. These schools were exclusive because of the travel and tuition fees involved. In these schools, some of the activities and sports developed and the activities that were popular become forerunners of the sports that we know today, with rules, facilities and organised ways of playing.

Question 57

What was the prefect-fagging system in public schools?

Answer 57

Parents of public school boys were concerned about the treatment of their boys who, under the prefect-fagging system, which was a cruel exploitation of younger boys being used as servants for the older boys, were experiencing brutality and bullying.

Question 58

What did Thomas Arnold do about the prefect-fagging system in public schools?

Answer 58

He wanted his pupils to grow up as moral Christian gentlemen so he revised the system and promoted more regulated sports, which provided exercise and encouraged healthy competition.

Question 59

What is the definition of athleticism?

Answer 59

A combination of physical endeavour, or trying hard, and moral integrity, or being honourable, truthful and showing good sportsmanship

Question 60

What ideas did Thomas Arnold introduce to public schools?

Answer 60

Arnold developed the house system, which was influential in the formation of competitive sports teams. He instigated prefects, who organised sports. He helped to develop the idea of muscular Christianity, which linked sport with being a Christian gentleman. Arnold was therefore important in establishing a link between sports and games and moral and ethical character. This concept of the development of character through sport is often referred to as the cult of athleticism.

Question 61

What developments took place in the 20th century in the UK? (6)

Answer 61

1 There was a massive development of scientific and technological innovation. 2 Many societies became hugely rich, but wealth was still unequally shared. 3 There was considerable growth of cities (urbanisation). 4 Communications technology made great advances. This allowed ideas to spread rapidly and sports and pastimes to become more globalised. 5 There was more time for leisure, less time spent on work, and therefore more participated in sport. 6 Stress due to wars and terrorism, the undermining of traditional values and the rapid pace of life took a great toll on people's general health and well-being.

Question 62

How were the rules of sports developed in the 20th century?

Answer 62

By 1900, fields of play were enclosed and boundaries made more formal, games were timetabled, and there were written codes of conduct. Spectators now had to pay to watch. Boxing competitors fought each other with gloves on, without biting or kicking each other. Some players of team sports had started to wear numbers on their backs to assist the spectator in identification and there was a fixed number of players per side in most team sports.

Question 63

When were sports events held in the 20th century?

Answer 63

Sports events were held on Saturdays rather than on festival days.

Question 64

In the 20th century, were football and rugby players paid or not?

Answer 64

Clubs could afford to pay players because soccer and rugby had become something that people watched as well as played.

Question 65

In the 20th century, what was introduced which added an extra excitement to matches?

Answer 65

Cup and league competitions involved town and area rivalries.

Question 66

What happened when soccer played on after the outbreak of war in 1914?

Answer 66

The reputation of professional sport went downhill among the middle classes, who saw these events as too common and too associated with gambling and drinking.

Question 67

What happened to spectators during the aftermath of war in the 20th century?

Answer 67

In the aftermath of war, spectator sport reached new heights of popularity. The crowds were mostly well-behaved and opposing supporters showed little hostility to each other. This led to the view that sport was a symbol of orderliness and good nature of the British working class - particular significant as this post-war time of political and social unrest at home and abroad.

Question 68

Due to the war in the 20th century, what happened to the employment of people and how did this affect sport?

Answer 68

Unemployed and unskilled workers were not well represented because of the cost of spectating. Consequently, as unemployment rocketed in parts of Britain during the inter-war depression, professional sport suffered; some clubs in the hardest-hit industrial regions went bankrupt. Working-class women were excluded from professional sport by the constraints of time and money.

Question 69

In the 20th century, who went to the professional soccer and rugby games?

Answer 69

Crowds at professional soccer and rugby league games became overwhelmingly male-dominated and showed a shared sense of community and class - predominantly working class. Professional sport was mostly watched by male skilled workers, with only a few women and the middle classes.

Question 70

Wat are the modern-day social grades? (6)

Answer 70

A - higher managerial, administrative or professional B - Intermediate managerial, administrative or professional C1 - Supervisory or clerical and junior managerial, administrative or professional C2 - Skilled manual workers D - semi and unskilled manual workers E - Casual or lowest grade workers, pensioners and others who depend on the state for their income

Question 71

What does the 1944 Education Act state?

Answer 71

It shall be the duty of the local education authority for every area, so far as their powers extend, to continue towards the spiritual, mental and physical developments of the community.

Question 72

What does the 1988 Education Reform Act state?

Answer 72

Promotes the spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical developments of pupils at the school and of society.

Question 73

Before the introduction of comprehensive schools (1965), what was the state education system in England made up of?

Answer 73

1 Grammar schools 2 secondary modern schools 3 secondary technical schools

Question 74

What was the availability of time, money and space for sport like in the 20th century?

Answer 74

With the gradual increase in leisure time and money, men played sport as well as watched and the towns of Britain offered opportunities in many difference sports, from water polo in the public baths to pigeon races from allotments, and quoits in fields behind pubs. The availability of money was also a key factor, and darts, dominoes and billiards flourished inside pubs and clubs, Space was a key requirement of sport but it was at a premium and the land was that available was heavily used.

Question 75

What was transport like in the 20th century?

Answer 75

During the 20th century, transport (public and private) began to be much more available to everyone. This enabled an increase in numbers able to travel to participate and spectate. This had the effect of sport being much more accessible to most people in Britain.

Question 76

During the late 1940s, what happened with transport in regard to sport?

Answer 76

Sport as a spectacle was encouraged by growing radio coverage. Football, rugby, cricket and boxing all attracted huge crowds. There were also large crowds at the 1948 Olympics, which London stepped in to host with the hope that the Games would rejuvenate tourism and the economy. The Games were an organised success and even made a profit, the last Olympics to do so until 1984. With the Empire being dissolved, international competitions like the Olympics began to matter more as a 'shop window' for the host city and country. The conquest of Everest in 1953 was possible because of the growing availability of international travel.

Question 77

What were the social classes like in the 20th century?

Answer 77

The pub was the centre of the sporting activity for working class men. There were professionals in team sports such as rugby, football and cricket and there was still development of the sports press. Most sports still took place in a drinking environment. In horse racing and boxing, the upper and middle classes put up the money and the lower classes took part. Gambling was still an essential part of sport. In team sports, working and middle classes would compete side by side. Working men and women had less free time for sport than the upper and middle classes. Teams and spectators were able to travel widely around the country at attend sporting events and these were held on Saturdays instead of holy days.

Question 78

What was gender like in the 20th century?

Answer 78

Crowds at professional football and rugby games became overwhelmingly male dominated and showed a sense of community. Professional sport was mainly watched by male skilled workers. Women were excluded from professional sport by the constraints of both time and money.

Question 79

What was law and order like in the 20th century?

Answer 79

Fields of play became in enclosed boundaries and games became more formal and timetabled. These were written codes of conduct in sports such as rugby and football. Most cruel sports has disappeared. Boxers now had to wear gloves and they weren't allowed to bite or kick. Although, football hooliganism became increasingly popular and the police had to spend much of their time controlling it.

Question 80

What was the type and availability of transport like in the 20th century?

Answer 80

Both public and private transport became more readily available to everyone. This enabled an increase in numbers able to travel to participate in sport as well as to spectate. Football, rugby, cricket and boxing all attracted huge crowds. There were also large crowds at the London Olympics 1948, which London stepped in to host with the hope that they would rejuvenate tourism and their economy. Plan travel was also on the rise, which allowed teams to enter midweek European football competitions like the EUFA Champions League.

Question 81

What was the availability of money like the in 20th century?

Answer 81

Darts, dominoes and billiards flourished inside pubs and clubs. Sports teams were building purpose built facilities such as training grounds and stadiums that suited their sport and their requirements as a club., e.g. The Crystal Palace National Sports Centre.

Question 82

What was the availability of time like in the 20th century?

Answer 82

There was a gradual increase of leisure time and men played sport as well as watched and the town offered more opportunities to play sport from water polo in public baths to pigeon races in allotments and even quoits in fields behind pubs.

Question 83

What was education and literacy like in the 20th century?

Answer 83

Physical development - a crucial component of the emergence of modern sport - was a feature of the ground breaking piece of educational legislation. The most important piece of legislation of the 20th century was the Education Act 1944, which replaced all previous legislation. The same principle was reiterated in the Education Reform Act 1988, which started the need for a broadly based curriculum. Before the introduction of comprehensive schools (1965), the state education system in England was made up of grammar schools, secondary modern schools and secondary technical schools.