Chapter 2 - Sensation And Perception

Question 1

___ aligns with ___: the process of converting stimuli into action potentials and neurotransmitters. It is done by ___.

Answer 1

Sensation; transduction; receptors

Question 2

___ is the process of making sense of the all the stimuli. It involves the central nervous system, which is made up of the ___ and ___.

Answer 2

Perception; brain and spinal cord

Question 3

___ are neurons that respond to ___ and convert it into electrical signals. This process is called ___.

Stimuli can be split into ___ and ___. The former type interacts directly with receptors and lets us know of the other kind.

___ is the study of stimuli and their effect on sensation and perceptions.

Answer 3

Sensory receptors; stimuli
Transduction

Proximal; distal

Psychophysics

Question 4

___ ___ stimuli. The signal then goes to ___, which are a collection of neuron cells bodies outside of the ___. From there, the signal goes to ___ areas in the brain

Answer 4

Sensory receptors; transduce

Ganglia

Central nervous system

Projection

Question 5

There are several types of sensory ___:

___: respond to the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum; sight

___: respond to fluid movement in the inner ear; detect ___ as well as ___ and ___ acceleration

___: respond to noxious sensations and pain; somatosensation

___: respond to changes in physiological zero; thermosensation

___: respond to osmolarity or concentration of blood; water homeostasis. Signals are then sent to the ___ hypothalamus.

___: respond to volatile chemical compounds; smell

___: respond to dissolved chemical compounds; taste

Answer 5

Receptors

Photoreceptors

Hair cells; sound; linear and rotational

Nociceptors

Thermoreceptors

Osmoreceptors

Olfactory receptors

Taste receptors

Question 6

There are three types of thresholds:

___ ___: the minimum stimuli necessary for receptors to send an action potential through transduction.

___ of ___ ___: stimuli that are long enough and large enough to reach high order brain regions. ___ perception refers to stimuli that is below this threshold, meaning it does ___ but just does not reach the brain. It is tested in ___ testing aka psychophysical ___ ___.

___ ___ ___ or ___ ___: minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli that can be perceived as different.

___ ___ quantifies ___ ___ by stating that it is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus

Answer 6

Absolute threshold

Threshold of conscious perception; Subliminal; Transduce; Discrimination Testing

Just noticeable difference; difference threshold

Weber’s law; difference threshold

Question 7

___ is the belief that factors like memories, expectations, and etcetera can affect our perception of stimuli. Meaning, the same stimuli can cause different effects depending on the context.

This belief also explains ___, which is when subjects respond to stimuli in a certain way because of non-sensory factors. Trials can include a signal, called ___ trails or not include signals, called ___ trials.

If a subject identifies a present response it is referred to as a ___.
If a subject identifies a non-existent response it is called ___.
If a subject does not identify a present response it is called a ___.
If a subject identifies that there was no response it is called a ___.

Answer 7

Signal detection theory

Response bias; catch trails; noise trails

Hit
False alarm
Miss
Correct negative

Question 8

___ is the process of increasing our ___ threshold in order to focus on more important, new stimuli.

Answer 8

Adaptation; difference

Question 9

The eye is composed of many parts, which help it detect light in the form of photons.

The ___ is the thick structural layer that surrounds that protects the eye and is aka the white of the eye.

The ___ is located below the scalara and it provides nutrients and to the eye through the ___ vessels.

The ___ is the innermost layer of the eye and it contains ___, which transduce photons into electrical signals.

Answer 9

Sclera

Choroid; choroidal

Retina; photoreceptors

Question 10

Light follows a specific pathway into the eye.

Light enters through the ___, a clear window that gathers and focuses the incoming rays.

Answer 10

Cornea

Question 11

After leaving the cornea, light enters the ___, which is controlled by the ___ through two muscles: ___ ___ and ___ ___. The former constricts under ___ stimulation while the other dilates under ___ stimulation of the ___ nervous system. Moreover, the ___ divides the eye into ___ and ___ chambers.

Answer 11

Pupil; Iris

Constrictor pupillae; Dilator pupillae

Parasympathetic; Sympathetic; Autonomic division of the Peripheral
Nervous System

Anterior; Posterior

Question 12

The ciliary ___ is continuous with the ___. It produces ___ humour which is then drained though the ___ of ___.

Answer 12

Body; Choroid

Aqueous; Canal of Schlemm

Question 13

After passing through the pupil, light refracts because of the ___. It is then projected onto the retina. Refraction is done by ___ muscles pulling on the ___ ligaments to change the shape of the ___. This process is referred to as ___.

The ___ is a clear gel that fills up the eye to keep its shape.

Answer 13

Lens
Ciliary; suspensory; lens
Accommodation

Vitreous humour

Question 14

The ___ is located at the back of the eye and contains ___, which transduce photons into action potentials. The ___ or ___ states there are two kinds of photoreceptors: ___ and ___.

Answer 14

Retina; photoreceptors

Duplexity; duplicity

Rods; cones

Question 15

___ are photoreceptors used for colour vision and fine details. There are ___ types, which are responsible for different wavelengths. ___ for blue, ___ for green, ___ for red.
___ are photoreceptors that differentiate between light and dark. They contain ___ which enables night vision but not for acute detail.

Answer 15

Cones
Short, medium, long
Rods; rhodopsin

Question 16

The centre point of the retina is called the ___, where there is a high concentration of ___ photoreceptors. Within the centre of this region is the ___, where there are only ____ photoreceptors. As one goes away from these regions, the concentration of ___ increases. As a result, this is the most sensitive part of the eye during daylight. The ___ is a blind spot and has zero photoreceptors.

Answer 16

Macula 
Cone
Fovea centralis 
Cone
Rods 
Optic disk: where the optic nerve exits the eye

Question 17

Rods and cone photoreceptors transduce light into electrical signals. These signals are then forwarded to ___, which gain help from the ___ to highlight the gradients or differences among adjacent photoreceptors. From there, the signal is passed to ___, which also receive help from ___. The helper cells are important for contrast, edge detection, and accentuating differences.
Altogether, there is a reduction in sensitivity as there are a few cones (high sensitivity and detail) and many rods (low sensitivity) converging to each receiving cell. From there, the ___ converge into optic fibers that later form the optic nerve. The optic nerve then exits through the optic disk to go to the occipital lobe.

Answer 17

Bipolar cells; horizontal cells
Ganglion cells; amacrine cells
Ganglion cells

Question 18

The ___ refers to the flow of visual information and the structures it must go through.
Each eye has two visual fields: left and right. These visual fields project onto the respective opposite part of the retina. For example, the right visual field from each eye projects onto the left part of the retina and vice versa.
The optic nerve then leaves the retina regions through the optic disk. Each eye’s optic nerve is made up of a temporal (closer to the ears) and nasal (closer to the nose) region. Once the optic nerve reaches the ___, the optic nerve from the nasal regions/carrying the temporal field vision cross paths. In contrast, the optic nerves from the temporal regions/carrying the nasal visual field do not cross paths. Once crossed, these nerves are referred to as the ___.
At the end of the crossing, the left visual field from both eyes is projected onto the right side of the brain and the right visual field is projected onto the left side of the brain.
The optic tracts then go to the ___ of the thalamus, where information is passed on the ___ for startle reflexes or passed through the temporal and parietal lobes to get to the ___ of the occipital lobe.

Answer 18

Visual pathway 
Optic chiasm 
Optic tract 
Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus 
Superior colliculus 
Visual cortex

Damage to one eye’s optic nerve = complete vision loss in one eye
Damage to the optic chiasm = loss of vision in temporal (outer) fields of both eyes
Damage to one optic tract = loss of vision in the opposite (left/right) visual field

Question 19

The brain determines objects by using ___, where it looks at the colour, shape, and motion of an object in conjunction with past memory. The brain takes in all of the visual information simultaneously through ___ and specialized cells:
Colour is detected by ___.
The shape and boundaries of an object is detected by ___, which have very high ___ resolution (fine details of stationary and slow moving objects) and low ___ resolution.
Motion is detected by ___, which have high ___ but low ___.

Answer 19

Feature detection theory
Parallel processing
Cones
Parvocellular cells; high spatial resolution; low temporal resolution
Magnocellular cells; high temporal resolution; low spatial resolution

Question 20

The ear is responsible for hearing and ___: linear and rotational acceleration. It is made up of the outer, middle, and inner parts.
Sound travels through longitudinal waves. The in phase waves’ frequency determines the rate of parallel vibrations in the ear and amplitude reflects the intensity or loudness of sounds.

Answer 20

Vestibular sense

Question 21

The outer ear is made up of the pinna/auricle, external auditory cnal, and the tympanic membrae. The ___ channels sounds waves into the ___. From there, waves travel towards the ___, which vibrates in phase with the incoming waves. As a result, its vibrations match the waves’ frequency.

Answer 21

Pinna/auricle

External auditory canal

Question 22

The ___ separates the outer and middle ear. The middle ear is made up of the ossicles and connects to the nasal cavity through ___ to equalize pressure.
The sound waves travel through and are amplified by these tiny, dense bones. Vibrations continue from the ___ to the ___, which is connected to the base plate. The ___ then acts on the ___ and in return it acts on the ___.

Answer 22

Tympanic membrane/eardrum 
Eustachian tube
Tympanic membrane ---> Malleus/hammer 
Malleus --> Incus/anvil 
Incus --> Stapes/strirrup

Question 23

The inner ear includes the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals, which make up the ___. These structures are filled up with ___. Inside of this fluid is the ___, which is filled with ___.
The cochlea is additionally made up of three sacculae. The top and bottom are filled with perilymph and are continuous with the round and oval windows. Meanwhile, the middle saccule is filled with endolymph.
The vestibule is made up of the ___ and ___, which detect linear acceleration through modified hair cells with ___.
The semicircular canals each end with an ampulla and detect rotational acceleration through hair cells.

Answer 23

Bony labyrinth
Perilymph (perimeter of the membranous labyrinth)
Membranous labyrinth
Endolymph

Question 24

Sound vibrations travel from the stapes/stirrup to the oval window of the Cochlea. From there, vibrations are carried through the perilymph to the basilar membrane, which is the base for the ___: the hearing apparatus, while the tectorial membrane is the top. The round window of the cochlea allows for the perilymph to move back and forth to activate the ___ or receptors in the hearing apparatus. These receptors are bathed in endolymph and transduce the signal so it can be carried by the ___ to the ___ of the thalamus. From there it goes to the ___ in the temporal lobe. Other signals go to the ___ for sound localization and the ___ for startle reflexes.

Answer 24

Organ of Corti 
Hair cells 
Vestibulocochlear/auditory nerve
Medial geniculate necleus (MGN)
Auditory cortex 

MGN for music; LGN for light

Question 25

Hair cells are important for listening and understanding sound. They are located on the flexible ___ (transducing) and the immobile ___ (amplifying) and have ___ on their top surface.
Hair cells on the lower membrane sway to open up ion channels so a signal can be sent. ___ states that hair cells send signals based on the incoming sound frequency. Higher sound waves are transduced near the oval window. As a result, the cochlea is ___ organized.

Answer 25

Basilar membrane
Tectorial membrane
Place theory
Tonotopically

Question 26

Aerosolized or volatile chemical compounds enter the nostrils and travel through the nasal cavity to bind with their respective ___ receptors in the ___. Electrical signals then go towards the ___ and then to ___ via the ___.

Answer 26

Chemo
Olfactory epithelium 
Olfactory bulb 
High order brain regions, like the limbic system 
Olfactory tract
NOTE NO THALAMUS

Question 27

Dissolved chemicals enter the mouth and connect to respective ___ to give a taste of sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (savoury). The signal then goes to the ___ in the thalamus and then finally higher order brain regions.
Receptors are gathered in groups called ___ and are located on the ___ of the tongue.

Answer 27

Chemoreceptors
Taste centre
Taste buds
Papillae

Question 28

___ is the sensation of touch and includes four modes: ___. There are many different receptors that receive this information which forward information to the ___ in the parietal lobe.
Thresholds vary based on the sensation. The ___, is the minimum distance needed between two points for it to be felt as two different stimuli.
___ is body temperature and is the basis for temperature difference perceptions.
___ is a theory that believes pain can be limited by focusing on other sensation modes.

Answer 28

Somatosensation
Pain, temperature, vibration, and pressure
Somatosensory cortex

Two point threshold
Physiological zero
Gate theory of pain

Question 29

___ or ___ is knowing where one’s body is in space, meaning it is important for balance, hand-eye coordination, and mobility.

Answer 29

Kinesthetic sense

Proprioception

Question 30

Objects are recognized using feature detection and parallel processing. However the order the information is taken is either ___ or ___. In the first type of processing, small details are taken in to build the whole picture of the object. In the other type, memory and expectations recognize the picture and then look into specifics. The two processes must work together along with other sensory details help us recognize the image through ___.

Answer 30

Bottom up or data driven processing
Top down or conceptually driven processing
Perceptual organization

Question 31

Generally, only a certain amount of visual details are available, like depth (using monocular and binocular cues), form (feature detection), motion (magnocellular cells), and ___ (viewing objects as the same despite slight differences) and the others are filled in using Gestalt principles, listed below:
___: elements close together = one unit
___: similar elements = one group
___: same pathway = one group
___: contours and shapes not present
___: enclosing contours = figure
___: perceptual organization will form the most symmetric, consistent, and simple image ans possible

Answer 31

Constancy 
Law of proximity 
Law of similarity 
Law of continuation 
Subjective contours 
Law of closure 
Law of pragnanz