Chapter 3 - Learning And Memory

Question 1

___ is the process of gaining new behaviour. Specifically, behaviour ___ is closely linked with ___ and the responses they cause.

Answer 1

Learning

Learning; stimuli

Question 2

___ is the process of becoming desensitized to stimuli because of repeated exposure.

Ex) medical students’ response to cadavers

Answer 2

Habituation

Question 3

___ is the process of a second stimuli interrupting the ___ process and making the subject respond more acutely to the ___ stimulus.

Ex) driving after taking an exit turn

Answer 3

Dishabituation
Habituation
Original

Question 4

There are ___ types of learning: ___ and ___. The former type of learning is linked with pairing and can be further split into ___ and ___ conditioning.

Answer 4

Two; associative and observational

Classical; operant

Question 5

___ conditioning the a type of ___ learning where it takes advantage of innate responses to create links between two stimuli.

___ is the scientist largely attributed to this field of learning.

Answer 5

Classical; associative

Ivan Pavlov

Question 6

An ___ stimulus can bring forth an innate or ___ response.

The smell of bread is an example of an ___ stimuli and brings forth the ___ response of salivation.

Answer 6

Unconditioned; unconditioned

Question 7

A ___ stimuli is one that does not bring an ___ response but if has the potential to become a ___ stimuli is referred to as a ___ stimuli.

The sound a can opening is an example of a ___ stimuli that becomes a ___ stimuli over time.

Answer 7

Neutral; unconditioned

Conditioned; signalling

Signalling; conditioned

Question 8

The process of turning a neutral stimuli into a ___ stimuli, which brings forth a reflexive response is called ___.

The same, reflexive response is then called a ___.

Answer 8

Conditioned; acquisition

Conditioned

Question 9

Acquisition is not permanent. If the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimuli then ___ or desensitization occurs. This process is referred to as ___.

However, ___ is also not permanent as the ___ stimuli can bring forth a small ___ response called ___.

Answer 9

Habituation; extinction

Extinction; conditioned; conditioned; spontaneous recovery

Question 10

___ is the process of associating similar ___ stimuli to being the same ___ response.

Ex) white rabbit and white rat

The opposite of the previous process is ___, where subjects can differentiate between two similar stimuli.

Answer 10

Generalization

Discrimination

Question 11

___ conditioning is another type of ___ learning that deals with voluntary behaviours. ___ is the scientist associated with this type of learning. He is the father of ___ which believes that all behaviours are conditioned.

Answer 11

Operant; associative

Skinner; behaviourism

Question 12

___ conditioning can be further divided into ___ and ___. The former increases the likelihood or reinforces a behaviour while the other decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.

Answer 12

Operant; reinforcement and punishment

Question 13

___ reinforcement introduces a stimuli to promote the behaviour. Ex) money

___ reinforcement takes away an unpleasant stimuli to promote the behaviour.
Ex) medication and pain

Answer 13

Positive

Negative

Question 14

___ reinforcement can be further split into ___ and ___ learning. Both behaviours promote a behaviour by removing a stimuli at different times.

For example, ___ learning reduces the stimuli that exists, like a headache.
___ learning removes a stimuli that will exist in the future, like a failing grade.

Answer 14

Negative; escape and avoidance learning

Escape; Avoidance

Question 15

Classical and operant conditioning, branches of ___ learning, can be used hand in hand.

For example, a dolphin may be trained to do tricks by giving a treat at the end. This is an example of ___ reinforcement where the treat is the ___ reinforcer—something the dolphin naturally responds to.

A clicker is also used during tricks. Using classical conditioning, the dolphin will associate the clicker with a treat. The clicker then becomes a ___ reinforcer or a ___ reinforcer.

Answer 15

Associative

Positive; primary

Secondary; conditioned

Question 16

___ stimulus may indicate that a reward is available in operant condition, specially ___ reinforcement.

Answer 16

Discriminatory

Positive

Question 17

___ is the process of reducing behaviours. It can be divided into ___ and ___. The former introduces a stimuli or consequence to reduce behaviour while the later removes it.

For example, detention in an example of ___ punishment while forbidding television is an example of ___ punishment.

Answer 17

Punishment
Positive; negative

Positive
Negative

Question 18

Timing impacts behaviour learning. Schedules can either be ___ or ___ and based on ___ or ___.

Answer 18

Fixed; variable

Ratios; intervals

Question 19

___ ___ is a schedule where a stimuli is introduced after a specific number of performances. Specifically, ___ reinforcement is a schedule where every instance is rewarded.

Answer 19

Fixed Ratio

Continous

Question 20

___ ___ reinforces a behaviour by introducing a stimuli after variable number of instances. This schedule is ___ ___ for learning and ___ ___ for extinction.

Answer 20

Variable ratio

Very rapid; very resistant

Question 21

___ ___ is a schedule where a stimuli is introduced after a certain time period.

Answer 21

Fixed interval

Question 22

___ ___ is a reinforcement schedule where stimuli is introduced after different intervals of time.

Answer 22

Varied interval

Question 23

___ ___ schedules have the fastest response rate. People tend to keep responding in hope of getting the right one. ___ ___ schedules have a lag between responses.

Answer 23

Variable ration

Fixed ratio

Question 24

___ is the process of rewarding steps of a major, complicated process.

Answer 24

Shaping

Question 25

There are many cognitive and biological factors that a impact associative learning.

For example, ___ learning is a process in which the subject observes the behaviour and then performs it once a positive stimuli is introduced.

___ ___ is a approach that takes a step back, looks at the problem, and then take actions rather than trial and error approach.

A predisposition to some learning behaviours better because of nature instincts is known as ___. In contrast, the difficulty in overcoming these natural behaviours is known as ___ ___.

Answer 25

Latent

Problem Solving

Preparedness; Instinctive Drift

Question 26

___ learning is a type of learning where stimuli or their absence of have no impact. Subjects learn through watching only.

Factors that impact observational learning include ___ neutrons. They are located in both the ___ and ___ lobes where they fire both when an individual is performing a task or observing it. They are involved in motor processes and potentially empathy.

Another factors is ___. Here, a model exemplifies the behaviour that is acceptable. It is most effective when words match actions.

Answer 26

Observational

Mirror; front and parietal lobes

Modeling

Question 27

As learning is to behaviour; memory is to knowledge. Memory is broken into three steps:

___, ___, and ___

Answer 27

Encoding
Storage
Retrieval

Question 28

___ is the process of taking in new information. It can be done via ___ processing or ___/effortful processing.

The former is more passive while the later is more active. With time and practice, the latter can become the former.

Answer 28

Encoding

Automatic, Controlled

Question 29

___ processing can be further split into three methods: ___, ___, and ___.

___ is the strongest and ___ encoding is the weakest.

Using our own live’s context is the ___ ___ effect. It is a type of ___ encoding.

Answer 29

Encoding

Visual, acoustic, and semantic

Semantic; visual

Self-referent

Question 30

Another technique that helps in encoding is the ___ rehearsal— a process in which information is repeated to keep it in working memory to short term to eventually long term.

Other methods include ___ which are abbreviations of words or phrases.

___ of ___ is the process of associating items with locations. ___ ___ associates items with numbers.

___/cluster is the process of organizing groups into specific groups.

Answer 30

Maintenance

Mnemonics

Method of loci; Peg-word

Chunking

Question 31

___ is the process of moving information into memory. There are several types of memory storage.

Going from shortest to longest time in storage memory is organized as: ___ —> ___ —> ___ —> ___

Answer 31

Storage

Sensory; Short term; working; long term

Question 32

___ memory is the most fleeting but incredibly detailed. It can be split into ___ and ___ memory. The former is based on visuals while the latter is based on acoustic.

This type of memory can be testing with ___ or ___ reporting. In ___ reporting a subject is told to report everything while the latter asks for specific rows or columns.

Answer 32

Sensory
Iconic; echoic

Whole; partial

Question 33

___ term memory quickly fades. It is limited to around ___ +/- 2 items. It can be improved using encoding techniques like clustering and maintenance rehearsal.

The ___ is the part of the brain responsible for this type of memory.

Answer 33

Short term
7

Hippocampus

Question 34

___ memory is closely related to short-term memory. It also relies on the frontal lobe for higher order functioning to make use of the short term memory.

The ___ is also responsible for this type of memory.

Answer 34

Working

Hippocampus

Question 35

___ term memory is information stored for instant recall and sometimes permanent.

___ ___ is the process of gathering information into this type of memory. It associates new information with what is already in long term memory.

This memory is controlled by the ___ initially but then moved into the ___ cortex.

Answer 35

Long term

Elaborative rehearsal

Hippocampus; cerebral cortex

Question 36

There are two types of long term memory: ___ and ___. The former is based on the conditioned processes, and skills while the latter focuses on conscious thought.

The latter is also further divided into ___ and ___. The first of which is based on facts while the second is based on experiences.

Answer 36

Implicit and explicit

Semantic; episodic

Question 37

___ is the process of acknowledging information learned. It includes ___—the ability to state previously learning information, ___—the ability to identify information learned, and ___ —the process of relearning information much more quickly.

___ is strongest when used with the ___ effect, which spaces out the time taken to the relearn information.

A ___ network is a concept group storage of memory. ___ activation is the process of activating other links in the network by activating one. ___ is the process of helping in recall by giving a hint.

Answer 37

Retrieval
Recall; recognition; relearning

Recall; Spacing

Semantic network; Spreading; Priming

Question 38

Several factors can affect long term memory.

___ effect is when location helps recall memory.

___ ___ memory/effect is when a certain mood helps in recall.

___ ___ effect is common in lists, where the first and last items are recalled also known as ___ and ___ effect.

Answer 38

Context

State-dependent

Serial position; primacy and recency

Question 39

___ disease is a brain disorder in which memory loss occurs because of limited acetylcholine in neutrons. It coincides with dementia— loss of memory and cognitive function, brain atrophy, and presence of beta amyloid plaques, and sundowning.

Answer 39

Alzheimer’s

Question 40

____ ____ is a disease resulting from thiamine deficiency. It is also associated with both ___ and ___ amnesia. The former leads to memory loss before the disease and the latter to the inability to form new memories.

___ is also common, where patients create memories to fill in gaps.

Answer 40

Korsakoff’s syndrome

Retrograde; anterograde

Confabulation

Question 41

___ is a condition in which one can’t recognize either objects, sounds or people.

It is commonly caused by physical brain damage from a stroke, or MS.

Answer 41

Agnosia

Question 42

Memories decay over time. Generally ___ at first and then ___. This is based off of Ebbinghaus’ curve.

Answer 42

Steeply; level off

Question 43

___ is the difficulty in information retrieval because of new information being learned or past information that has been learned.

The former is referred to as ___ interference while the latter is ___ interference.

Answer 43

Interference effect

Retroactive; Proactive

Question 44

Age does not cause severe degradation in memory.

Semantic (fact) based memory and skill based memory (implicit or non-declarative) stay in tact.

___ memory— remembering to do something is intact with context effects but ___ based prospective memory, like appointments, does decline with age.

Answer 44

Prospective

Time

Question 45

___ effect is when wrong information is presenting to create false memories.

Answer 45

Misinformation

Question 46

___ ___ ___ occurs when semantic (fact) and episodic (experience) based memories get mixed up.

Answer 46

Source monitoring error

Question 47

____ is the ability of the brain to create rapid neural connections in response to stimuli—damage, experiences, etc.

It is very common in children and declines with age.

Answer 47

Neuroplasticity

Question 48

___ ___ is the process of improving brain efficiency by removing weak neural connections and strengthening ones used.

Answer 48

Synaptic pruning

Question 49

___ ___ is the ability for some neutrons to strengthen certain neural connections, by increasing the number of receptors sites and releasing neurotransmitters effeciently

Answer 49

Long term potentiation