Chapter 7

Question 1

Define social influence

Answer 1

influence of other people on our everyday thoughts, feelings and behaviour

Question 2

Define conformity

Answer 2

the change in beliefs, opinions, and behaviours as a result of our perceptions about what other people believe or do (outcome of social influence)
Can be
• Spontaneous (out of our awareness)
• Deliberate/intentional (in order to fit in)

Question 3

Define informational conformity

Answer 3

The change in opinions or behaviour that occurs when we conform to people whom we believe have accurate information

Question 4

Informational conformity results generally in…

Answer 4

Private acceptance: real change in opinions on the part of the individual

Question 5

Name a downside of informational conformity

Answer 5

• Others can adopt mistakes and wrong ideas/behaviour

Question 6

Name 3 ways in which we can resist informational social influence?

Answer 6

• Engage in rational problem solving
  
  • Consider if another person’s interpretation of a situation is + legitimate than your own
  • Do the actions of other people seem sensible?

Question 7

Define normative conformity

Answer 7

Occurs when we express our opinions or behave in ways that help us to be accepted or that keep us from being isolated or rejected by others

Question 8

Normative conformity usually results in…

Answer 8

Public conformity: superficial change in behaviour (including the expression of opinions) that is not accompanied by an actual change in one’s private opinion

Question 9

Define majority influence

Answer 9

Occurs when the beliefs held by the larger number of individuals in the current social group prevail

Question 10

Describe the experiment about the autokinetic effect, and the main criticism about it

Answer 10

Autokinetic effect: rapid, small movements of the eyes occurring when we view objects (allow to focus on stimuli)
• When a single point of light in a dark room it makes the point appear to move
Participants asked to judge how much light is moving:
• When asked alone, answers varied a lot
• In groups, answers started to become more homogenous (a group norm had developed)
• These norms continued to influence participants once they were alone again (for a long time)

Criticism: this situation was ambiguous because it differs with the perception of everyone

Question 11

Describe Asch’s experiment about judging lines, and compare it with the experiment about the autokinetic effect. What was the premise about this situation compared to the other experiment?

Answer 11

groups asked to tell which line was not the same as the others (Asch)
• All confederates but one
• People would conform even when the right answer was obvious
• Having an ally reduced conformity
• Anonymity (writing answers) reduced conformity
*Not ambiguous: the answer is clear to everyone
• Premise was that people would not conform in such an unambiguous situation

Question 12

Define minority influence

Answer 12

When the beliefs held by the smaller number of individuals in the current social group prevail

Question 13

Describe the experiment in which people had to tell the colour of a card and how it relates to minority influence

Answer 13

2 confederates + 4 participants had to define the colour of slides (that were clearly blue) - sitting in circles
• Consistent minority condition: confederates gave unusual answer (green) on every trial
• Inconsistent minority condition: confederated gave unusual answer 2/3 of the time and right answer 1/3
• Consistent minority was highly effective in influencing the group’s opinion

When consistent, minorities are able to produce long lasting change (private acceptance)

Question 14

Describe Latanée’s social impact theory

Answer 14

predicts the likelihood of conformity according to the number of people in the majority
• The first people to be added to the majority are more influent than the later ones

Question 15

Describe Milgram’s experiment about people looking up at a building and how it relates to the social impact theory

Answer 15

Milgram observed people in the street when a group of confederates looked up at a building
• Bigger group = more change in behaviour, but only up to a certain point (after that each additional confederate did not produce a large change in behaviour) (after about 6 people)

At a certain point, the majority seems more as a group than as individuals (therefore adding new members does not change this perception)

Question 16

Why is the unanimity of the majority more important than its size in affecting other people’s opinions?

Answer 16

Why? Hard to stand completely alone as having a different opinion - but when we are not alone its easier
• Unanimity can make people doubt their own perceptions

Question 17

Describe the experiment about the importance of a task and its relation to conformity

Answer 17

task to recognize people from 1 pic to another in groups of 3 (2 confederates + 1 participant)
• Easy condition and hard condition
• Important condition and not important condition
• Easy + important = not much conformity
• Easy + not important = more conformity (normative conformity)
• Hard + important = more conformity
• Hard + not important = less conformity (informational conformity)

Question 18

Define social power

Answer 18

ability of a person to create conformity even when the people being influenced may attempt to resist those changes

Question 19

Name 2 versions of Milgram’s shock experiment that reduced the percentage of people going to the maximum dose of shock

Answer 19

Two teachers refusing to continue (majority was broken)

Experimenter leaving the room and another “teacher” gave the instructions to continue

Question 20

Define reward power and give an example

Answer 20

When a person is able to influence others by providing them with positive outcomes
• Ex: bosses are able to increase their employees salary to increase their performance

Question 21

Define coercive power and give an example

Answer 21

Based on the ability to create negative outcomes for others, for instance by bullying, intimidating, or otherwise punishing
• Ex: bosses have coercive power if they are able to punish their salary (by reducing salary or advantages)

Question 22

What is the condition for coercive power to be effective?

Answer 22

Only works if the person being punished does not leave the group and is dependent on the person punishing them
Ø More difficult to use because it requires to make sure the person will not just leave the group to avoid the punishment
Ø It is less desirable because it creates a negative environment

Question 23

What sort of conformity does coercive power produce?

Answer 23

Produces public conformity

Question 24

Define legitimate power and give an example

Answer 24

Vested in those who are appointed or elected to positions of authority (such as teacher, policemen, judges)

Question 25

What sort of conformity does legitimate power produce?

Answer 25

Ø Create change in the behaviour of others but also in the social norms governing behaviour of the group
Produces private acceptance and public conformity

Question 26

Define referent power and give an example

Answer 26

Ability to influence others because they can lead those others to identify with them
Ex: young child imitating older sibling

Question 27

Name the 3 characteristics of the person holding referent power

Answer 27

The person holding this power is:
• A member of an important reference group (someone we admire)
• A charismatic, dynamic and persuasive leader
• A person who is particularly attractive/famous

Question 28

What sort of conformity does referent power produce?

Answer 28

Produces private acceptance

Ø Occurs passively: the influencer does not necessarily want to influence others

Question 29

Define expert power and give an example. How is it also called?

Answer 29

Type of informational influence based on the fundamental desire to obtain valid and accurate information, and where the outcome is likely to be private acceptance
• Ex: conformity to instructions of teachers, doctors or lawyers etc
AKA “White Coat Effect”

Question 30

What sort of conformity does expert power produce?

Answer 30

Creates private acceptance

Question 31

Define leadership

Answer 31

ability to direct or inspire others to achieve goals

Question 32

Define personality theories of leadership

Answer 32

explanations of leadership based on the idea that some people are simply “natural leaders” because they possess personality characteristics that make them effective

Question 33

Name some characteristics of “natural leaders”

Answer 33

• Intelligence - useful (as long as the leader is able to communicate it to others)
  
  • Social skills (perceive needs/goals of group members, more sociable)
  • Verbal skills, creativity, self-confidence, emotional stability, conscientiousness and effectiveness
  • Expertise

Question 34

In short, “natural leaders” can be described as…

Answer 34

Charismatic leaders: leaders who are enthusiastic, committed, and self-confident, who tend to talk about the importance of group goals at a broad level; and who make personal sacrifices for the group

Question 35

Define transactional leadership style

Answer 35

more regular leaders who work with their subordinates to help them understand what is required of them and to get the job done

Question 36

Define transformational leadership style

Answer 36

more charismatic, have a vision of where the group is going and attempt to stimulate and inspire their workers to create new/better future

Question 37

Describe the contingency model of leadership effectiveness

Answer 37

focuses on both person variables and situational variables to assess leadership effectiveness
Classifies individuals according to their leadership styles
Classifies the situations in which groups had to perform tasks on different aspects

Question 38

What does the contingency model of leadership effectiveness evaluates? 3 aspects

Answer 38

• Leader-member relations (degree to which the leader has a good relationship with the group)
  
  • Task structure
  • Position power (leader’s level of power or support in the organization)

Question 39

What are task oriented leaders? When are they most effective?

Answer 39

concerned more with getting the job done than with feelings of, and relationship between workers
More effective when
• Excellent leader-member relations, and the task at hand is clear
• Poor leader-member relations, and the task is unclear

Question 40

What are relationship-oriented leaders? When are they most effective?

Answer 40

concerned primarily with the feelings of, and relationships between workers
More effective when
• Moderate leader-member relations and the task is moderately clear

Question 41

Name person differences that might affect conformity

Answer 41

• Lower self esteem is + conforming
  
  • Optimal balance between being similar to and different from others
  • Middle aged is less conforming (40-50s)
  • Impact of person variables is smaller than situational variables
  • People who identify with the group are more likely to conform

Question 42

Explain the main differences between men and women in terms of conformity

Answer 42

• Women: + concerned about connecting with others (other-concern)
  
  • Men: + concerned about displaying high status (self-concern), more likely to conform to “impress” women, more likely to act as leaders in small groups
  • Both men and women are - likely to conform on topics that they know + about (Informational influence)
  • While men are + likely to become leaders, they are not more effective than women in doing so
  • Women are + likely to adopt a transformational leadership style than men

Question 43

Is conformity greater in collectivistic or individualistic communities?

Answer 43

Conformity is greater in collectivistic countries than in individualistic ones

Question 44

What is psychological reactance?

Answer 44

strong motivational state that prevents conformity

Question 45

When does psychological reactance occurs?

Answer 45

Social influence does not always lead to conformity (sometimes it can backfire if the influence is too pressed upon us)

Question 46

Describe the experiment in toilet stalls that gives an example of psychological reactance

Answer 46

Experiment: “please do not write on the walls” vs “do not write on the walls under any circumstance” - 1st was more effective because it was less intense

Question 47

Name the 3 factors accounting for evil behaviour (Lucifer effect)

Answer 47

Dispositional: inside the individuals: the bad apples
Situational: external: the bad barrel
Systemic: broad influences; political, economic, legal power: the bad barrel-makers
The system creates the situation that corrupts the individuals