A&P Chapter 2 Flashcards
1
Q
The body is made up of many ______
A
Chemicals
2
Q
Chemistry underlies all ______ reactions
A
Physiological
3
Q
What are some examples of physiological reactions?
A
Movement, digestion, pumping of the heart, and nervous system
4
Q
Chemistry can be broken down into what two categories?
A
- Basic chemistry
- Biochemistry
5
Q
What is matter?
A
Anything that has mass and occupies space
6
Q
Matter can be:
1. _______
2. _______
and/or
3. _______
A
Seen, smelled, felt
7
Q
Weight is _____ + the effects of what?
A
Mass + the effects of gravity
8
Q
What are the three possible states that matter can exist in?
A
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gas
9
Q
What are characteristics of a solid?
A
Definite shape and volume
10
Q
What are characteristics of a liquid?
A
Changeable shape; definite volume
11
Q
What are characteristics of a gas?
A
Changeable shape and volume
12
Q
What is energy?
A
The capacity to do work or put matter into motion
13
Q
What are the two possible forms of energy?
A
Kinetic and potential
14
Q
What is kinetic energy?
A
Energy in action
15
Q
What is potential energy?
A
Stored (inactive) energy
16
Q
Energy can be transformed from ______ —> what?
A
Potential —> kinetic energy
17
Q
Stored energy can be ______, resulting in action
A
Released
18
Q
All matter is composed of what?
A
Elements
19
Q
4 elements make up what percentage of the body and what are they?
A
96% of the body is made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
20
Q
9 elements make up how much of the body?
A
3.9%
21
Q
11 elements make up how much of the body?
A
<0.01%
22
Q
The periodic table lists what elements?
A
All known
23
Q
What are all elements made up of?
A
Atoms
24
Q
What are atoms?
A
- Unique building blocks for each element
- Smallest particles of an element with properties of that element
- What gives each element its particular physical and chemical properties
25
What is an atomic symbol?
One or two letter chemical shorthand for each element
26
What is an example of an atomic symbol?
O for oxygen
27
What is another example of an atomic symbol?
C for carbon
28
How are atomic symbols determined?
Some symbols come from Latin names
29
What is an example of an atomic symbol being named after latin names?
Na = Sodium (Natrium)
30
What is another example of an atomic symbol being named after latin names?
K = Potassium (Kalium)
31
What is the atomic symbol for oxygen?
O
32
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that oxygen makes up?
65%
33
What is the function of oxygen in the body?
A component of both organic and inorganic molecules. As a gas, it is needed for the production of cellular energy (ATP)
34
What is the difference between organic and inorganic molecules?
Organic = Carbon containing
Inorganic = Non-carbon containing
35
What is the atomic symbol for carbon?
C
36
What is the approximate percentage of body mass does carbon make up?
18.5%
37
What is the function of carbon in the body?
A component of all organic molecules, which include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
38
What are lipids?
Fats and oils
39
What is the atomic symbol for hydrogen?
H
40
What is the approximate percentage of body mass does hydrogen make up?
9.5%
41
What is the function of hydrogen in the body?
A component of all organic molecules. As an ion (proton), it influences the pH of body fluids
42
What is the atomic symbol for nitrogen?
N
43
What is the approximate percentage of body mass does nitrogen make up?
3.2%
44
What is the function of nitrogen in the body?
A component of proteins and nucleic acids
45
What is the atomic symbol for calcium?
Ca
46
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that calcium makes up?
1.5%
47
What is the function of calcium in the body?
Found as a salt in bones and teeth. It's ionic form is required for muscle contraction, conduction of nerve impulses, and blood clotting.
48
What is the ionic form of calcium?
Ca2+
49
What is the atomic symbol for phosphorus?
P
50
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that phosphorus makes up?
1%
51
What is the function of phosphorus in the body?
Part of calcium phosphate salts in bones and teeth. Also present in nucleic acids, and as a part of ATP and phospholipids
52
What is the atomic symbol for potassium?
K
53
What is the approximate percentage of body mass does potassium make up?
0.4%
54
What is the function of potassium in the body?
Its ion is the major positive ion in cells. Necessary for conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction
55
What is a positive ion called?
Cation
56
What is a potassium ion?
K+
57
What is the atomic symbol for sulfur?
S
58
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that sulfur makes up?
0.3%
59
What is the function of sulfur in the body?
Components of proteins, particularly muscle proteins
60
What is the atomic symbol for sodium?
Na
61
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that sodium makes up?
0.2%
62
What is the function of sodium in the body?
As an ion, sodium is the major positive ion found in extracellular fluids. Important for water balance, conduction of nerve impulses, and muscle contraction
63
What is a sodium ion?
Na+
64
What is extracellular fluid?
Fluid outside the cell
65
What is the atomic symbol for chlorine?
Cl
66
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that chlorine makes up?
0.2%
67
What is the function of chlorine in the body?
Its ion is the most abundant negative ion in extracellular fluids
68
What is a negative ion called?
Anion
69
What is a chlorine ion?
Chloride, Cl-
70
What is the atomic symbol for magnesium?
Mg
71
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that magnesium makes up?
0.1%
72
What is the function of magnesium in the body?
Present in bone. Also an important cofactor in a number of metabolic reactions
73
What is the atomic symbol of iodine?
I
74
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that iodine makes up?
0.1%
75
What is the function of iodine in the body?
Needed to make functional thyroid hormones
76
What is the atomic symbol for iron?
Fe
77
What is the approximate percentage of body mass that iron makes up?
0.1%
78
What is the function of iron in the body?
Component of hemoglobin and some enzymes
79
What does hemoglobin do?
Transports oxygen within red blood cells
80
Atoms are composed of 3 subatomic particles, what are they?
1. Protons
2. Neutrons
3. Electrons
81
What do protons carry?
A positive charge (+)
82
How much does a proton weigh?
An arbitrary 1 atomic mass unit (1 amu)
83
What do neutrons carry?
No electrical charge (0)
84
How much does a neutron weigh?
1 amu
85
What do electrons carry?
A negative charge (-)
86
How much does an electron weigh?
Virtually nothing because they are so small (0 amu)
87
The orbital model represents electrons as what?
A cloud of negative charge
88
The more simplified planetary model shows electrons as what?
Two small spheres on a circle around the nucleus
89
Different elements contain different numbers of what?
Subatomic particles
90
Hydrogen has _ proton, _ neutrons and _ electron
1 proton, 0 neutrons, 1 electron
91
Helium has _ protons, _ neutrons, and _ electrons
2 protons, 2 neutrons, 2 electrons
92
Lithium has _ protons, _ neutrons, and _ electrons
3 protons, 4 neutrons, and 3 electrons
93
How can you identify elements?
Atomic number and mass number
94
How is the atomic number determined?
Number of protons in the nucleus
95
How is an atomic number written?
As a subscript to the left of the atomic symbol (think denominator)
96
How is the mass number determined?
Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, aka total mass of the atom
97
How is the mass number written?
As a superscript to the left of atomic symbol (think numerator)
98
What are isotopes?
Structural variations of the same element
99
Atoms contain the same number of _____ but differ in the number of _____ they contain
Same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons they contain
100
So, in isotopes, atomic numbers are _____, but mass numbers are ______
Atomic numbers are the same, but mass numbers are different
101
What is an atomic weight?
Average of mass numbers of all isotope forms of an atom
102
What are radioisotopes?
Isotopes that decompose to more stable forms
103
In radioisotopes, the atom loses what?
Varius subatomic particles
104
When an atom loses subatomic particles, such as in radioisotopes, what can happen to the isotope?
Can become a different element
105
What is radioactivity?
As the isotope decays, subatomic particles that are being given off release a little energy. The energy is called radioactivity
106
What can radioactivity do?
Damage living tissue to cause or treat cancer
107
Radioactivity can be detected and measured by what?
Scanners
108
Most atoms chemically combine with other atoms to form ______ and _______
Molecules and compounds
109
What is a molecule?
General term for 2 or more atoms bonded together
110
What is a compound?
Specific molecule that has 2 or more different kinds of atoms bottom together
111
What is an example of a compound?
C6H1206
112
Molecules with only one type of atom, like H2 or O2 are called what?
Molecules
113
What are chemical bonds?
Energy relationships between electrons of reacting atoms
114
What are chemical bonds not?
Not actual physical structures
115
What are the subatomic particles that are involved in all chemical reactions?
Electrons
116
What do electrons determine?
Whether a chemical reaction will take place and if so, what type of chemical bond is formed
117
Electrons can occupy areas around the nucleus called what?
Electron shells
118
Each electron shell contains electrons that have a certain amount of kinetic and potential energy, so shells are also called what?
Energy levels
119
Depending on the size of an atom, how many electron shells can an atom have?
Up to 7
120
Shells can only do what?
Hold a specific number of electrons
121
Which shell is filled first?
The one closest to the nucleus
122
Shell one can hold only _ electrons?
2
123
Shell 2 holds a maximum of how many electrons?
8
124
Shell 3 holds a maximum of how many electrons?
8
125
The outermost electron shell is called what?
Valence shell
126
Electrons in the valence shell have the most ______ energy and why?
Potential energy because they are the farthest from the nucleus
127
Which electrons are involved in chemical reactions?
Valence shell electrons
128
What is the Octet rule/rule of 8th's?
Atoms desire 8 electrons in their valence shell
129
What are exceptions to the Octet rule?
Smaller atoms like H and He, they want only 2 electrons in shell 1
130
The desire to have 8 electrons is the driving force behind what?
Chemical reactions
131
What is special about noble gases?
They already have the full 8 valence electrons (or 2 electrons for He), so they are not chemically reactive
132
Most atoms ____ ____ have full valence shells
Do not
133
Atoms will _____, _____, or ___ electrons (aka form bonds) with other atoms to achieve stability of 8 electrons in the valence shell
Gain, lose, or share
134
What are chemically inert elements?
Valence shell is complete
135
What are 2 examples of chemically inert elements?
1. Helium (He) 2p, 2n, 2e
2. Neon (Ne) 10p, 10n, 10e
136
What are chemically reactive elements?
Valence shell is incomplete
137
What are examples of chemically reactive elements?
1. Hydrogen (H) 1p, 0n, 1e
2. Carbon (C) 6p, 6n, 6e
3. Oxygen (O) 8p, 8n, 8e
4. Sodium (Na) 11p, 12n, 11e
138
What are ions?
Atoms that have gained or lost electrons and become charged
139
The number of protons ___ ____ equal the number of electrons
Does not
140
Ionic bonds involve what?
The transfer of valence shell electrons from one atom to another, resulting in ions. One becomes an anion, and one becomes a cation
141
What is an anion?
Negative charge, the atom that gained one or more electrons
142
What is a cation?
Positive charge, the atom that lost one or more electrons
143
The attraction of what results in an ionic bond?
Opposite charges
144
Most ionic compounds are what?
Salts
145
What is an example of an ionic compound?
NaCl, sodium chloride
146
What is an example of the formation of an ionic bond?
Sodium with 1e in the outer shell and chlorine with 7 in the outer shell
1. The lone outer electron of sodium joins the seven outer electrons of chlorine
2. The result is a cation (Na+) and an anion (Cl-), which can form ionic bonds
147
What are covalent bonds?
Bonds formed by the sharing of two or more valence shell electrons between two atoms
148
The sharing of 2 electrons results in what kind of bond?
Single
149
The sharing of 4 electrons results in what kind of bond?
Double
150
The sharing of 6 electrons results in what kind of bond?
Triple
151
What do covalent bonds allow?
Allows each atom to fill its valence shell at least part of the time
152
What are the two types of covalent bonds?
Polar and nonpolar
153
What are nonpolar covalent bonds?
Equal sharing of electrons between atoms that results in electrically balanced, nonpolar molecules such as CO2
154
Carbon dioxide molecules are ____ _____, which makes them ______
Linear and symmetrical, makes them nonpolar
155
What are polar covalent bonds?
Unequal sharing of electrons between 2 atoms, resulting in electrically polar molecules
156
How does unequal sharing occur?
Atoms have different electron attracting abilities
157
What is an example of covalent bonds?
The formation of four single covalent bonds: Carbon shares four electron pairs with four hydrogen atoms, and the result looks like a + with C in the middle and H on the 4 sides
158
What is an example of polar covalent bonds?
V-shaped water (H2O) molecules have two poles of charge, a slightly more negative oxygen end and a slightly more positive hydrogen end
159
What are hydrogen bonds?
Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom of another molecule
160
A hydrogen bond is not a true bond but more of what?
A weak magnetic attraction
161
What is an example of hydrogen bonds?
The slightly positive ends of the water molecules become aligned with the slightly negative ends of other water molecules
162
When do chemical reactions occur?
When chemical bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken
163
Chemical equations contain what 2 things?
Reactants and products
164
What are reactants?
Substances entering into reaction together
165
What is the product(s)?
Resulting chemical end products
166
What is a synthesis reaction?
Smaller particles are bonded together to form larger, more complex molecules
167
What is an example of a synthesis reaction?
Amino acids are joined together to form a protein molecule
168
What is a decomposition reaction?
Bonds are broken in larger molecules, resulting in smaller, less complex molecules
169
What is an example of a decomposition reaction?
Glycogen is broken down to release glucose molecules
170
What is an exchange reaction/displacement reaction?
Bonds are both made and broken
171
What is an example of an exchange reaction/displacement reaction?
ATP transfers its terminal phosphate group to glucose to form glucose-phosphate
172
All chemical reactions are either _____ or _____
Exergonic or endergonic
173
Exergonic reactions result in what?
A net release of energy (aka it gives off energy)
174
The products in an exergonic reaction have _____ _____ _____ than reactants
Less potential energy
175
What is are 2 examples of exergonic reactions?
Catabolic and oxidative reactions
176
Endergonic reactions result in what?
A net absorption of energy (aka they use up energy)
177
The products in an endergonic reaction have ____ ____ ____ than the reactants
More potential energy
178
What is an example of an endergonic reaction?
Anabolic reactions
179
The speed of chemical reactions can be affected by what and how?
1. Temperature = increased temperatures usually increase the rate of reaction
2. Concentration of reactants = increased concentrations usually increase rate
3. Particle size = smaller particles usually increase rate
180
What do catalysts do?
Increase the rate of reaction without being chemically changed or becoming part of the product
181
What are biological catalysts?
Enzymes
182
What is biochemistry?
The study of chemical composition and reactions of living matter
183
All chemicals are either ____ or ____
Organic or inorganic
184
What are some examples of inorganic compounds?
Water, salts, and many acids and bases
185
Inorganic compounds do not contain what?
Carbon
186
What are some examples of organic compounds?
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids
187
Organic compounds contain what and what are their characteristics?
Contains carbon, are usually large, and are covalently bonded
188
Organic and inorganic compounds are both _____ _____ for life
Equally essential
189
What is the most abundant inorganic compound that accounts for 60-80% of the volume of living cells?
Water
190
What are the properties of water?
1. High heat capacity = ability to absorb and release heat with little temperature change, prevents sudden changes in temperature
2. High heat of vaporization = heat is lost with evaporation
3. Polar solvent properties = dissolves and dissociates ionic substances (used for transport in the body)
4. Reactivity = hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions
5. Cushioning
191
What is an example of water's high heat capacity?
Water in the blood redistributes head among tissues to maintain homeostasis
192
What is an example of water's high heat of vaporization?
Sweat evaporates from skin
193
What is an example of water cushioning?
Cushing body organs like in CSF
194
What are salts?
Ionic compounds that dissociate into separate ions in water
195
Ions play specialized roles in what and is vital for what?
Body functions and is vital for homeostasis
196
What are common salts in the body?
NaCl, CaCO3, KCl, calcium phosphates
197
Acids and bases are both _____, so they ionize and dissociate in water?
Electrolytes
198
Acids are proton _____ and they release ____ _____ (H+) and bare protons in the solution
Donors and they release hydrogen ions
199
What are important acids?
HCl, HC2H3O2, and H2CO3
200
What is HCl?
Hydrochloric acid
201
What is HC2H3O2?
Acetic acid (HAc)
202
What is H2CO3?
Carbonic acid
203
Bases are proton ______ and they pick up what type of ions in the solution?
Proton acceptors and they pick up H+ ions
204
What are bare protons?
Protons that have no electrons
205
When a base dissolves in solution, what does it release?
Hydroxyl ion (OH-)
206
What are important bases?
Bicarbonate ion and ammonia
207
What is HCO3-?
Bicarbonate ion
208
What is NH3?
Ammonia
209
On the pH scale, numbers 8-14 are _______ ____
Increasingly basic
210
On the pH scale number 7 is ____
Neutral
211
On the pH scale, numbers 6 and below is _____ _____
Increasingly acidic
212
1M sodium hydroxide has a pH of what?
14 (the most basic)
213
Oven cleaner, lye has a pH of what?
13.5 (basic)
214
Household ammonia has a pH of what?
10.5 to 11.5 (basic)
215
Household bleach has a pH of what?
9.5 (basic)
216
Egg whites have a pH of what?
8 (the least basic)
217
Blood has a pH of what?
7.4 (neutral)
218
Milk has a pH of what?
6.3 to 6.6 (the least acidic)
219
Black coffee has a pH of what?
5 (acidic)
220
Wine has a pH of what?
2.5 to 3.5 (acidic)
221
Lemon juice and gastric juice have a pH of what?
2 (acidic)
222
1M of hydrochloric acid has a pH of what?
0 (the most acidic)
223
What is a neutralization reaction?
Acids and bases are mixed together. Displacement reactions occur, forming water and a salt
224
What is an example of a neutralization reaction?
NaOH + HCl ---> NaCl + H20
225
What are the major organic compounds?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
226
Many organic compounds are ______
Polymers
227
What are polymers?
Chains of similar unites called monomers
228
Organic compounds are synthesized by what?
Dehydration synthesis
229
Organic compounds are broken down by what?
Hydrolysis reactions
230
What is dehydration synthesis?
Monomers are joined by removal of OH from one monomer and removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation
231
What is hydrolysis?
Monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other
232
Carbohydrates include what?
Sugars and starches
233
What are monosaccharides?
Monomers of carbohudrates
234
What are some examples of monosaccharides?
Hexose sugars = Glucose, fructose, galactose
Pentose = Deoxyribose and ribose
235
What are disaccharides?
Consist of two linked monosaccharides
236
What are some examples of disaccharides?
Sucrose = glucose + fructose
Maltose = glucose + glucose
Lactose = galactose + glucose
237
What is a polysaccharides?
Long chains (polymers) of linked monosaccharides
238
What do lipids contain?
C, H, and O, but less than in carbohydrates, and sometimes contain P
239
Lipids are _____ in water
Insoluble
240
Triglycerides or neutral fats are called _____ when solid and _____ when liquid
Fats when solid and poils when liquid
241
What are the main functions of triglycerides/neutral fats?
Energy storage, insulation, protection
242
What is the triglyceride formation?
Three fatty acid chains are bound to glycerol by dehydration synthesis
243
The head and tail regions of phospholipids contain different properties, what are they?
Head is a polar region and is attracted to water, tails are nonpolar and are repelled by water
244
Phospholipids are important in what structure?
Cell membrane
245
What is the typical structure of a phospholipid molecule?
Two fatty acid chains (tail) and a phosphorus-containing group (head) are attached to the glycerol backbone like in Phosphatidylcholine
246
What are common steroids?
Natural: cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, and bile salts
Man-made: Corticosteroids and anabolic
247
What is the most important steroid and why?
Cholesterol, because it is the basis for all steroids formed in the body and it is important in cell plasma membrane structure
248
What is the simplified structure of a steroid?
Four interlocking hydrocarbon rings
249
What are eicosanoids?
Found in cell membranes
250
What are the most important eicosanoids?
Prostaglandins, because they play a role in blood clotting, control of blood pressure, inflammation, and labor contractions
251
All proteins are made from __ types of amino acids?
20
252
All proteins are joined by covalent bonds called ____ bonds
Peptide
253
Proteins can act as either an ____ or _____
Acid or base
254
Proteins differ by which of ___ ____ ____ ____ is present
20 different "R groups" is present
255
What is the primary structure of proteins?
The sequence of amino acids form the polypeptide chain
256
What is the secondary structure of proteins?
The primary chain forms spirals (alpha helices) and sheets (beta sheets)
257
What is the tertiary structure of proteins?
Superimposed on secondary structure, alpha helices and/or beta sheets are folded up to form a compact globular molecule held together by intramolecular bonds
258
What is the quaternary structure of proteins?
Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combines to form a functional protein
259
What is denaturation?
Globular proteins unfold and lose their functional 3-D shape, and active sites become deactivated
260
Why does denaturation occur?
Decreased pH (increased acidity) or increased temperature
261
Is denaturation reversible?
If normal conditions are restored, but is irreversible if the changes are extreme, like how you can't uncook an egg
262
What are enzymes?
Globular proteins that act as biological catalysts
263
What do catalysts do?
Regulate and increase the speed of chemical reactions without getting used up in the process
264
What do enzymes do to the energy?
Lowers the energy needed to initiate a chemical reaction. Leads to an increase in the speed of a reaction. Allows for millions of reactions per minute
265
What are nucleic acids?
Largest molecules in the body, composed of C, H, O, N and P
266
What are nucleic acid polymers made up of?
Monomers called nucleotides, composed of a nitrogen base, a pentose sugar, and phosphate group
267
What are the two major classes of nucleic acids?
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
268
What does DNA hold?
The genetic blueprint for the synthesis of all proteins
269
What is DNA?
A double-stranded helical molecule (double helix) located in the cell nucleus
270
What do nucleotides contain?
A deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen bases
271
What are the 2 groups that the four nitrogen bases fall into?
Purines: adenine (A) and guanine (G)
Pyrimidines: cytosine (C) and thymine (T)
272
RNA links DNA to ____ _____ and is slightly different from DNA
Protein synthesis
273
What is RNA?
Single-stranded linear molecule is active mostly outside the nucleus. Contains a ribose sugar
274
What is thymine replaced with in RNA?
Uracil
